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Alternanthera philoxeroides (水生植物, 草本植物)   |
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管理信息
预防措施：：澳大利亚环境部和文化遗产(2003)报告说：一旦它成功地布满水体，尽管有许多昂贵的尝试，很少有机会移除空心莲子草。基于这个原因，管理空心莲子草最优先的是一种有效的制度，早期发现和在侵袭建立以前加以消灭。
空心莲子草(Alternanthera philoxeroides)风险评估， 由澳大利亚太平洋岛屿生态系统风险计划执行(PIER)，使用澳大利亚风险评估标准(Pheloung, 1995)。其结果是12分，建议如下：应禁止进口此植物(澳大利亚)或此此物种可能具有高风险(太平洋)。机械方法：考文垂等人(2002)报告，使用杂清除 120吨的空心莲子草。作者报告说：进一步使用小船清除收割机造成的 18公斤碎片。在可及性佳的地区，这是一种去除生物量有效的方法，但必须使用其它方法处理再生长，可及性差的地区也必须改用其它方法。必须谨慎监督，以确保所有碎片都收集到。如果没有收集到所有碎片，机械收割会加剧此物种入侵的风险。 化学方法：Gunasekera和Bonila(2001)测试四种化学品，二氯苯腈，草甘膦，甲磺隆和甲磺隆加草甘膦。作者们发现，每一种化学品对空心莲子草的控制方法各有不同。 考文垂等人(2002)研究12种除草剂组合的各种处理方法 。请参阅考文垂等人, 2002 生物方法：加涅等人(2004)发现一个瘿蚋科的新物种Clinodiplosis alternantherae会伤害空心莲子草。C. alternantherae会在分枝顶端形成虫瘿，是可能的候选物种，以帮助控制外来入侵的空心莲子草(Alternanthera philoxeroides)。 巴雷托和托雷斯(1999)确定的2种真菌，Nimbya alternantherae和Cercospora alternantherae对空心莲子草有致病作用。作者总结报告说：N. alternantherae被证明是非常有伤害力，似乎有可能作为生物控制剂。 白金汉(1996)报告说：1964年至1971年3种南美的物种被释放到北美，用来控制空心莲子草。作者报告说：跳蚤虫Agasicles hygophila会剥去茎上的叶片，蛾Vogtia malloi，会在茎内穿孔。这两种生物都会对茎部造成严重伤害，因而杀死它，把植垫弄破，清理出水道。蓟马Amynothrips andersoni会吃幼株的叶尖。遭到严重破坏的植物往往发育不良。考文垂等人(2002)建议引进 2种昆虫到澳大利亚来控制空心莲子草；蓟马Amynothrips andersoni和跳甲虫Disonycha argentinensis。 Tan等人(2002)已经确定了，枯萎菌Fusarium为使空心莲子草的自然族群致病。大规模生产真菌疫苗应该是可能的，但大规模生产需要进行测试。在实验的温室环境下以及在野地，该真菌控制空心莲子草是有效的。因此，它被认为是一个良好的候选物种，可用来管理空心莲子草(Alternanthera philoxeroides)在一些陆地和水生环境。  
地点特有的管理信息Australia
"In Australia approximately $3 million has been spent to successfully control a small infestation in an irrigated system in order to prevent losses estimated at $250 million. The weed has threatened turf and vegetable production in the Lower Hunter and Sydney basin. In most cases control programs have not prevented expansion of the larger infestations nor protected areas previously free of the weed. An efficient and effective management program must be implemented otherwise alligator weed will invade all major catchments, degrade conservation areas and increase costs of waterway management.
The Weeds of National Significance Strategic Plan aims to coordinate the management of alligator weed, prevent its further spread and protect high-risk sites. Community education is a key factor for its success. Non-core infestations are a priority and are targeted for eradication. Core infestations are targeted for containment and reduction of spread. Further investigations into improving integrated control techniques are required. The National Alligator Weed Working Group, consisting of stakeholders from states and industries, will coordinate this management.
Chemical Control: Chemical eradication of small infestations is currently being attempted in many backyards throughout Australia. It has been suggested that until new compounds are available little progress will be made with herbicidal control.
Biological control: The flea beetle Agasicles hygrophila provides good control in aquatic environments in the Sydney region. This is a truly aquatic insect and is limited to warm temperate and sub tropical areas. The predicted range for alligator weed in Australia far exceeds the predicted range for the flea beetle. A moth Arcola malloi contributes to control in aquatic habitats and is established but has no impact on terrestrial alligator weed. Further biological control programs are being targeted.
Physical control: The value of physical controls (mechanical or manual) is limited to small and isolated situations and could be particularly useful in removing initial invaders of a catchment if they can be located early enough. Mechanical removal, particularly in waterways, is problematic and may contribute to downstream spread. Disposal of the collected material poses specific problems." Barren Box Swamp
The Barren Box swamp infestation near Griffith, NSW, has been very significantly reduced but not eradicated as a result of intensive work over a number of years costing several million dollars (Coventry et al. 2002). Botany Wetlands
The nationally important wetlands, Botany Wetlands are ecologically as well as aesthetically significant. They supplied drinking water for Sydney in the mid 1800s. Alligator weed was first reported in the waterways around 1985. Until the mid 1990s the infestation was only occasionally treated with herbicides, by which time the infestation was out of control and posed a significant threat to the wetlands.
Sydney Water (which provides drinking water and wastewater services to over four million people in the Sydney, Blue Mountains and Illawarra areas, including the Botany Wetlands which are situated within the metropolitan area of Sydney) introduced an integrated weed management approach to deal with alligator weed infestation. This approach involves close and regular monitoring for new infestations, herbicide treatment for both terrestrial and aquatic infestations and manual removal of floating masses. Other strategies in the integrated approach include controlled burning of sedges and rushes, large scale planting of native water plants in treated areas and lowering of water levels to allow better control. Also, to minimise environmental damage from chemicals, herbicides are not applied when the biological control agents are most active.About 90-95% of the previous alligator weed infestation has been controlled and removed since the adoption of the new integrated management plan in 1997, the weed however has not been completely eradicated. For more details please see Case study: Integrated management of alligator weed in Botany Wetlands in Sydney . (DEH, 2003) China
A host-specific flea beetle, Agasicles hygrophila, introduced from the USA in 1986 as a biological control agent, has become widely established in South China and has effectively controlled the weed in many water bodies. It has been observed, however, that the beetle's ability in controlling the weed in terrestrial habitats has been limited, apparently due to its poor and/or greatly varying pupation rates (Rui-Yan and Ren, 2004). Hunter Estuary Wetlands
A management plan for the Nature Reserve is currently being implemented (2002), addressing numerous conservation and management initiatives to preserve and enhance the area for nature conservation. Management policies and practices are outlined for geology and soils, hydrology, water quality and catchment management, native and introduced flora and fauna, wetland rehabilitation, cultural heritage, fire management and use and promotion of Kooragang Nature Reserve. Specific conservation measures include pampas grass control, vegetation mapping, alligator weed control, rehabilitation as well as artificial construction of migratory shorebird habitat and shorebird monitoring. Lower Hunter River
Alligator weed currently infests 2,500 hectares of terrestrial and 500 hectares of aquatic area in the Lower Hunter region (Commonwealth of Australia, 2000). “Alligator weed has eliminated small crop and turf farming from parts of the Lower Hunter” (Commonwealth of Australia, 2000). New Zealand
A. philoxeroides is included in the First Schedule of the National Pest Plant Accord. All plants on the list are designated as Unwanted Organisms, and are banned from sale, propagation and distribution throughout New
Zealand. Please see National Pest Plant Accord for the complete list.
Chemical, mechanical and biological control of alligator weed all have limitations. Herbicides often only destroy the foliage, but fail to kill the roots, from which it rapidly resprouts. Physical removal is only recommended for small infestations where all of the plant can be removed, as breakup of plant may cause new infestations to establish. Inappropriate disposal of alligator weed may also lead to new infestations. In New Zealand, the most successful biocontrol agent, the leaf feeding Chrysomelid flea beetle (Agasicles hygrophila), does quite well on lakes, but is not able to establish in terrestrial environments. It also has a more restricted potential distribution in New Zealand than alligator weed (Bassett, I., pers. comm. July 2005).
Stewart et al. (2000) studied the effects of A. hygrophila, a biological control agent for A. philoxeroides and determined that A. hygrophila is unlikely to cause a reduction in alligator weed in New Zealand even in conjunction with Arcola malloi. United States (USA)
A host-specific flea beetle, Agasicles hygrophila, introduced from the USA in 1986 as a biological control agent, has become widely established in South China and has effectively controlled the weed in many water bodies. It has been observed, however, that the beetle's ability in controlling the weed in terrestrial habitats has been limited, apparently due to its poor and/or greatly varying pupation rates (Rui-Yan and Ren, 2004).
The University of Florida (UNDATED) states that, "There were 97,000 problem acres of A. philoxeroides in the US in 1963; by 1981 there were less than 1,000 problem acres." The authors state that this level of control was achieved through the use of three separate biological control agents. The first biocontrol insect released against A. philoxeroides was the alligatorweed flea beetle (Agasicles hygrophila). The authors state that, "The second biocontrol insect released to combat A. philoxeroides was the alligatorweed thrips (Amynothrips andersoni)." The third control organism that was released was the alligatorweed stem borer (Vogtia malloi) (University of Florida, UNDATED).
For a detailed history of biological control efforts in the eastern United States, please follow this link G. R. Buckingham In: Van Driesche, R., et al., 2002, Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States, USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET-2002-04, 413 p. Waikato Region (North Island)
A. philoxeroides is classified as an “Eradication Plant Pest” by Environment Waikato. Environment Waikato will directly manage and control it, as well as monitor the weed and providing identification and control information to the community.
Please see definitions for hierarchy of pest designations.
管理资源 /链接
2. Barret, R. W., and A. N. L. Torres. 1999. Nimbya alternantherae and Cercospora alternantherae: Two new records of fungal pathogens on Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligatorweed) in Brazil. Australasian Plant Pathology. 28(2). 1999. 103-107. 3. Bassett, I., pers. comm. July 2005. Alligator weed: Potential invader of forest catchments? Effects of shade on alligator weed growth. Centre for Biodiversity and Biosecurity Seminar Series, University of Auckland. 5. Buckingham, G. R. 1996. Biological control of alligatorweed, Alternanthera philoxeroides, the world's first aquatic weed success story. Castanea. 61(3). 1996. 232-243. 8. Champion, P.D.; Clayton, J.S. 2001. Border control for potential aquatic weeds. Stage 2. Weed risk assessment. Science for Conservation 185. 30 p.
摘要： This report is the second stage in the development of a Border Control Programme for aquatic plants that have the potential to become ecological weeds in New Zealand. Importers and traders in aquatic plants were surveyed to identify the plant species known or likely to be present in New Zealand. The Aquatic Plant Weed Risk Assessment Model was used to help assess the level of risk posed by these species. The report presents evidence of the various entry pathways and considers the impact that new invasive aquatic weed species may have on vulnerable native aquatic species and communities.
Available from: http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/SFC185.pdf [Accessed 13 June 2007] 9. Commonwealth of Australia. 2000. ALLIGATOR WEED (Alternanthera philoxeroides) Strategic Plan. Commonwealth of Australia and the National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee. 10. Coventry, R., M. Julien, and J. Wilson. 2002. Report of the 1st CRC for Australian Weed Management Alligator Weed Research Workshop. Department of Land & Water Conservation, Windsor, NSW. 11. Environment Waikato. 2002. Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides). 15. Flanagan, G.J. 1999. Agnote Alligator weed 16. Gagne, R. J., A. Sosa, and H. Cordo. 2004. A new neotropical species of Clinodiplosis (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) injurious to alligatorweed, Alternanthera philoxeroides (Amaranthaceae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 106 (2). April 2004. 305-311. 17. Gunasekera, L. 1999. Alligator weed - An aquatic weed present in Australian backyards. Plant Protection Quarterly. 14 (2). 1999. 77-78. 18. Gunasekera, L., and J. Bonila. 2001. Alligator weed: Tasty vegetable in Australian backyards? Journal of Aquatic Plant Management. 39 January, 2001. 17-20. 19. IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4.
摘要： The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species provides taxonomic, conservation status and distribution information on taxa that have been globally evaluated using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. This system is designed to determine the relative risk of extinction, and the main purpose of the IUCN Red List is to catalogue and highlight those taxa that are facing a higher risk of global extinction (i.e. those listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable). The IUCN Red List also includes information on taxa that are categorized as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild; on taxa that cannot be evaluated because of insufficient information (i.e. are Data Deficient); and on taxa that are either close to meeting the threatened thresholds or that would be threatened were it not for an ongoing taxon-specific conservation programme (i.e. are Near Threatened).
Available from: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ [Accessed 25 May 2011] 20. IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)., 2010. A Compilation of Information Sources for Conservation Managers.
摘要： This compilation of information sources can be sorted on keywords for example: Baits & Lures, Non Target Species, Eradication, Monitoring, Risk Assessment, Weeds, Herbicides etc. This compilation is at present in Excel format, this will be web-enabled as a searchable database shortly. This version of the database has been developed by the IUCN SSC ISSG as part of an Overseas Territories Environmental Programme funded project XOT603 in partnership with the Cayman Islands Government - Department of Environment. The compilation is a work under progress, the ISSG will manage, maintain and enhance the database with current and newly published information, reports, journal articles etc. 21. Julien, M. H., B. Skarratt, and G. E. Maywald. 1995. Potential Geographical Distribution of Alligator Weed and its Biological Control by Agasicles hygrophila. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 33: 55-60. 22. Napompeth, B. UNDATED. Biological Control of Paddy and Aquatic Weeds in Thailand. National Biological Control Research Center (NBCRC), Kasetsart Univseristy. 23. National Pest Plant Accord, 2001. Biosecurity New Zealand.
摘要： The National Pest Plant Accord is a cooperative agreement between regional councils and government departments with biosecurity responsibilities. Under the accord, regional councils will undertake surveillance to prevent the commercial sale and/or distribution of an agreed list of pest plants.
Available from: http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests-diseases/plants/accord.htm [Accessed 11 August 2005] 25. Ramsar Sites Information Service, 2005. Ramsar Sites Database
摘要： The Ramsar Sites Information Service provides information on wetlands designated as internationally important under the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, 1971). These wetlands are commonly known as Ramsar Sites. Wetlands International manages and develops the Ramsar Sites Database (RSDB) under contract to the Ramsar Convention Secretariat. This core Ramsar Sites Database is a searchable database, fully accessible through the internet with a password protected data entry system, and an unprotected reporting system for public use.
Available from: http://www.wetlands.org/RSDB/default.htm [Accessed 25 April 2005] 27. Roy, B., Popay, I., Champion, P., Trevor, J., and Rahman, A., 2004. An Illustrated Guide to Common Weeds of New Zealand 2nd Edition New Zealand Plant Protection Society 29. Rui-Yan, M., and W. Ren. 2004. Effect of morphological and physiological variations in the ecotypes of alligatorweed, Alternanthera philoxeroides on the pupation rate of its biocontrol agent Agasicles hygrophila Zhiwu Shengtai Xuebao. 28 (1). Jan. 2004. 24-30. 30. Sainty, G., G. McCorkelle, and M. Julien. 1998. Control and spread of Alligator Weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb., in Australia: lessons for other regions. Wetlands Ecology and Management 5: 195-201, 1998. 31. Sheng, Q., S. Jun-Ming, Z. Cheng-Qun, S. Geng-Yun, H. Jin-Liang, and W. Feng-Liang. 2003. The influence of cropping systems on weed communities in the cotton fields of Jiangsu Province. Zhiwu Shengtai Xuebao. 27 (2). Mar. 2003. 278-282. 32. Tan, W. Z., Q. J. Li, and L. Qing. 2002. Biological control of alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) with a Fusarium sp. BioControl 47: 463-479, 2002. 结果页： 1
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