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Management Information
Preventative measures: A Risk Assessment of Ulex europaeus for Hawai‘i and other Pacific islands was prepared by Dr. Curtis Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service. The alien plant screening system is derived from Pheloung et al. (1999) with minor modifications for use in Pacific islands (Daehler et al., 2004). The result is a score of 20 and a recommendation of: "Likely to cause significant ecological or economic harm in Hawai‘i and on other Pacific Islands as determined by a high WRA score, which is based on published sources describing species biology and behaviour in Hawai‘i and/or other parts of the world." A Risk assessment of
Ulex europaeus for Australia was prepared by Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk
(PIER) using the Australian risk assessment system (Pheloung, 1995). The result is a score
of 26 and a recommendation of: reject the plant for import (Australia) or species likely to
be a pest (Pacific).
Cultural: In Oregon, forest managers use fast-growing tree species to shade out gorse. This technique has also been used in New Zealand and Hawai‘i. Planting acid-tolerant, fast-growing species in gorse thickets may eventually shade out gorse without further management efforts (IPM, 2000). McCarter and Gaynor (1980; in IPM, 2000) report that the combined effect of competition of white clover (Trifolium repens) and the symbiont Rhizoctonia fungi will prevent gorse establishment in situations of extreme competition among pasture species and defoliation caused by grazing stock. It has also been stated that a healthy, well-fertilised sward of pasture which is not overgrazed or pugged will be more resistant to gorse invasion than poorly managed pasture (BOPRC, undated).
Integrated management: Successful clearance of gorse requires a combination of methods: good pasture management, good grazing management and the appropriate follow-up herbicide application (AgResearch, 1999).
Click here for Information about physical, chemical and biological control
Location Specific Management InformationAustralia
The "Bradley Method", developed in Australia, is a simple yet innovative strategy for natural areas that combines containment and reduction. Integrated control methods include chemical, mechanical, grazing management and fire. In wasteland areas, herbicides are often the only practical method when combined with encouraging native regrowth, and in bushland, mechanical methods, herbicides and revegetation can be combined to control gorse with minimal impacts to surrounding species.
Biological control methods have the potential to be successful when used in conjunction with other methods, and the gorse spider mite (Tetranychus lintearius) has already been introduced to Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. There are plans to introduce gorse thrips (Sericothrips staphylinus), the gorse pod moth (Cydia succedana) and the gorse soft shoot moth (Agonopterix ulicitella) once host specificity tests are complete (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000).
It is important to prevent the further spread of gorse by preventing the introduction of seed, usually carried from infested areas in soil, gravel and mud, or transported by water. Removal of gorse growing on the edges of water-courses is important to prevent seed being dispersed downstream (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000). Bay of Plenty Region (New Zealand)
Gorse is a Boundary Control Plant Pest in the Bay of Plenty region (Environment BOP Regional Plant Pest Management Strategy). Land occupiers are required to control all gorse plants growing within 10 metres of neighbouring properties clear of or being cleared of gorse. A number of insects have been introduced into the Bay of Plenty for the control of gorse. California (United States (USA))
The gorse weevil (Apion ulicis) was brought into the U.S. in 1953 from France (Holloway and Huffaker 1957) and by 1982 had become established in California (Julien 1982). The weevil grub eats the seed within the unopened legume. When the pods open adult weevils are released to feed on the spines and flowers (Cowley 1983), sometimes defoliating large plants. In California, the weevil has been only partially successful in controlling gorse (Amme 1983). The plant often has enough food reserves in the root and stem to recover rapidly after serious injury (Evans 1942). The effect of quail on gorse seed dispersal has not been studied in California. The thrips beetle Sericothrips staphylinus has shown promise as a biological control agent in Hawaii and is hope it will become available in California in the future (Markin et al., 1995; in IPM, 2000).
Gorse was nominated to be the subject of an Element Stewardship Abstract by Kate Barrows, former Preserve Manager of The Nature Conservancy's Northern California Coast Range Preserve. Although it is not presently growing within the preserve, it does occur on the coastal bluffs near Ft. Bragg and Mendocino (Barrows 1985), and such proximity may be a cause for concern.
Gorse is probably the least recognized yet most unmanageable exotic weed in California. Management efforts must be very long-term in scope in order to be successful, due to the longevity of buried seeds. Burning may be the most adequate means of removing the mature plants. There is debate about the effectiveness of fire in controlling gorse as researchers in New Zealand have seen native species invading and outcompeting gorse on unmanipulated lands. Planting acid-tolerant, fast-growing trees in gorse thickets may eventually shade out gorse without further management efforts. In California, gorse is a B-list noxious weed (USDA-NRCS, 2003). East Coast US (United States (USA))
The gorse weevil (Apion ulicis) was brought into the U.S. in 1953 from France (Holloway and Huffaker 1957) and by 1982 had become established in California and Oregon (Julien 1982). The weevil grub eats the seed within the unopened legume. When the pods open adult weevils are released to feed on the spines and flowers (Cowley 1983), sometimes defoliating large plants. Garry Oak Ecosystems (Canada) (Canada)
The ISSC (Invasive Species Steering Committee) of the Garry Oak Ecosystems Recovery Team (GOERT) (a partnership of a number of governmental and non-governmental agencies) which focuses on research and management of invasive species in Garry oak and associated ecosystems has developed a Decision Support Tool for Invasive Species management and Field Manual for invasive species. The field manual for Ulex europeas can be seen here . Hawaii (United States (USA))
In Hawaii, temporary control was undertaken in the 1970s using 2,4-5 T. The ban of the herbicide and lack of funding ended the programme. A task force was later set up to coordinate a management approach which included the following four control programmes: a/ containment: using Tordon 22K strips along roadsides were first targeted to eliminate the possibility of seed transport to new areas, b/ long-term biological: search for control agents in Europe which in 1984 resulted in the release of a seed weevil (Apion ulicis Forster). The weevil is now well established and spreading, but despite destroying 50% of seeds it had no detectable impact on the spreading populations c/ reforestation: using mainly native trees to shade out U. europaeus and d/ grazing: use of goats (Capra hircus) after fire (Binggeli, 1997). Gorse is listed as a noxious weed in Hawaii (USDA-NRCS, 2003).
Gorse thrips (Sericothrips staphylinus) were released in Hawaii in 1991, and are spreading and the moth Agonopterix ulicetella was released in large numbers between 1988 and 1990, and is now established (Hill et al., 2000). Other biological control agents which have been released in Hawaii include Apion scutellare (released 1989-1991, not established), Pempilia genistella (released 1996, 1998, not established), and Tetranychus lintearius (released in 1995, established) (PIER, 2002). Hawaii (Hawai‘i) Is. (United States (USA))
Biological: The following agents have been released in Hawaii: - Agonopterix ulicitella (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae), a defoliator from Portugal, now established, released in 1988.
- Apion ulicis (Coleoptera: Apionidae), a seed feeder from England, now established, released in 1955.
- Apion scutellare (Coleoptera: Apionidae), a stem gall former from England, not established, released in 1989, 1990, and 1991.
- Pempilia genistella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a stem borer from Portugal, not established, released in 1996 and 1998.
- Sericothrips staphylinus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) a defoliator from England, now established, released in 1990.
- Tetranychus lintearius (Acarina: Tetranychidae), a defoliator from England, now established, released in 1995. Jughandle State Reserve (United States (USA))
The gorse weevil (Apion ulicis) was brought into the U.S. in 1953 from France (Holloway and Huffaker 1957) and by 1982 had become established in California (Julien 1982). The weevil grub eats the seed within the unopened legume. When the pods open adult weevils are released to feed on the spines and flowers (Cowley 1983), sometimes defoliating large plants. In California, the weevil has been only partially successful in controlling gorse (Amme 1983). The plant often has enough food reserves in the root and stem to recover rapidly after serious injury (Evans 1942). The effect of quail on gorse seed dispersal has not been studied in California.
Two gorse management programs currently underway have associated monitoring studies to assess the effectiveness of control efforts. Such monitoring is probably qualitative, answering the question, "Does gorse reestablish itself following control treatment?" These two management programs are being conducted by Thomas Reid Associates on San Bruno Mountain in San Mateo County and by the California Department of Parks and Recreation at Jughandle State Reserve in Mendocino County. Marin County (United States (USA))
The gorse weevil (Apion ulicis) was brought into the U.S. in 1953 from France (Holloway and Huffaker 1957) and by 1982 had become established in California (Julien 1982). The weevil grub eats the seed within the unopened legume. When the pods open adult weevils are released to feed on the spines and flowers (Cowley 1983), sometimes defoliating large plants. In California, the weevil has been only partially successful in controlling gorse (Amme 1983). The plant often has enough food reserves in the root and stem to recover rapidly after serious injury (Evans 1942). The effect of quail on gorse seed dispersal has not been studied in California.
Since manual removal is labor intensive, a ready supply of cheap labor is the first obstacle to overcome for manual control programs. The Marin chapter of the California Native Plant Society has been successful in getting volunteers on weekend days to form broom pulling parties (Bravo 1985). Such activities might be organized to control gorse. Youth groups and civic organizations might also be willing to form work parties (Mountjoy 1979). More work is accomplished proportionately in a short period, such as from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m., than in a long period with a lunch break. In addition to being short, the 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. work period also allows volunteers to hike in the afternoon, a factor that results in increased participation. Maui Is. (United States (USA))
Biological: The following agents have been released in Hawaii: - Agonopterix ulicitella (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae), a defoliator from Portugal, now established, released in 1988.
- Apion ulicis (Coleoptera: Apionidae), a seed feeder from England, now established, released in 1955.
- Apion scutellare (Coleoptera: Apionidae), a stem gall former from England, not established, released in 1989, 1990, and 1991.
- Pempilia genistella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a stem borer from Portugal, not established, released in 1996 and 1998.
- Sericothrips staphylinus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) a defoliator from England, now established, released in 1990.
- Tetranychus lintearius (Acarina: Tetranychidae), a defoliator from England, now established, released in 1995. Moloka`i (Molokai) Is. (United States (USA))
Biological: The following agents have been released in Hawaii: - Agonopterix ulicitella (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae), a defoliator from Portugal, now established, released in 1988.
- Apion ulicis (Coleoptera: Apionidae), a seed feeder from England, now established, released in 1955.
- Apion scutellare (Coleoptera: Apionidae), a stem gall former from England, not established, released in 1989, 1990, and 1991.
- Pempilia genistella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a stem borer from Portugal, not established, released in 1996 and 1998.
- Sericothrips staphylinus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) a defoliator from England, now established, released in 1990.
- Tetranychus lintearius (Acarina: Tetranychidae), a defoliator from England, now established, released in 1995. Nelson (New Zealand)
U. europaeus has been designated as a 'Progressive control pest' and 'Boundary control pest' by the the Tasman-Nelson Regional Pest Management Strategy. The strategy has its effect over the combined area that lies within the administrative boundaries of the Tasman District Council and Nelson City Council. In areas of low distribution (Howard-St Arnaud area) the objective of the strategy is to reduce the distribution and density of U. europaeus. In areas where it is widespread the objective is to require boundary control (control the spread of U. europaeus from adjacent properties to land clear of U. europaeus, or being cleared of it), and to invest in biocontrol. Please see Hierarchy of Plant Designations for an explanation of designation terminology. New South Wales (Australia)
Legal Status: Category W2 (plants to be fully and continually suppressed and destroyed). Applies to a minority of government areas of the State. Biological: The gorse spider mite (Tetranychus lintearius) was introduced into quarantine in Australia from New Zealand in 1998, having originally been imported from the UK, Spain and Portugal. Six strains have been release on two properties in NSW, and initial monitoring suggests that the spider mite has caused significant weakening of gorse plants. New Zealand
Legal Status: Gorse was declared a weed in New Zealand in 1900.
Apion ulicis, a seed weevil, reputed to destroy up to 90 percent of spring seed, was introduced in 1931 as a control, but has not been effective in controlling the gorse. Fast-growing tree species can shade out gorse, reducing or sometimes eradicating an infestation. There is debate about the effectiveness of fire in controlling gorse as researchers in New Zealand have seen native species invading and outcompeting gorse on unmanipulated lands. Chemical control of gorse has been well researched in New Zealand. All young seedlings were killed by picloram (Ivens 1979b, in Hoshovsky, 1989). Good results were obtained with Tordon applied during the spring and summer months. Larger plants seem to need retreatments, and burned stumps showed a high degree of recovery and regrowth (Ivens 1979b, in Hoshovsky, 1989).
As with many scrub weeds, gorse soon regrows from dormant buds on stumps if shrubs are cut with chain saws or slashers without prior herbicide treatment. Regrowth from buds can also occur after fires. Many herbicides are not very effective on gorse because of the shape of the "leaves" and the thick cuticles on the spines which help prevent absorption of herbicides. However gorse can be killed using such herbicides as triclopyr (Grazon), picloram + triclopyr (Tordon Brushkiller) and metsulfuron (Escort). Goats will graze gorse and can kill it. There is an active biological control programme on gorse, and so far about seven different species have been released in New Zealand. These are the gorse spider mite (Tetranychus lintearius), which was introduced in 1989 and is now established; the gorse thrips (Sericothrips staphylinus), released in 1990 and now widely established; Agonopterix ulicetella, released in 1990 but established only sporadically and at low densities; Scythris grandipennis, released in 1993 but failed to establish; Pempelia genistella, released in 1995 and establishment unconfirmed; and the gorse pod moth (Cydia succedana), released in 1992 and now established (Hill et al., 2000). Research is currently focussing on the potential of a fungal herbicide (mycoherbicide), using the fungus Fusarium tumidum (Hill et al., 2000). Oregon (United States (USA))
The gorse weevil (Apion ulicis) was brought into the U.S. in 1953 from France (Holloway and Huffaker 1957) and by 1982 had become established in Oregon (Julien 1982). The weevil grub eats the seed within the unopened legume. When the pods open adult weevils are released to feed on the spines and flowers (Cowley 1983), sometimes defoliating large plants. Gorse is a B-listed noxious weed in Oregon (USDA-NRCS, 2003). The spider mite Tetranychus lintearius was released in Oregon and California in 1993 and 1994, but it is still too early to determine it's impact (IPM, 2000). Poland
There is a need to control the spread of this species. One control option is that the species should be removed (by digging out) in protected areas. Rangitoto Is. (New Zealand)
In 1995, a weed control programme was initiated on Rangitoto Island, with 72 weed species identified. These were split into three priority classes, each with a management objective. The long term aim for this species is sustained control. Control of Ulex europaeus is best undertaken using helicopters. Reunion (La Réunion) 
The management strategy in natural environments consists of initial identification of infestations by survey and then treatment in the following year. One control method is manual uprooting of the plant and incineration of all material. Another integrated method uses application of chemicals after mechanical cutting. To ensure full elimination of the treated plant and the seed bank in the soil, it is recommended that areas treated with manual uprooting should be re-treated for 3 years (Hivert, 2003). San Bruno Mountain (United States (USA))
The gorse weevil (Apion ulicis) was brought into the U.S. in 1953 from France (Holloway and Huffaker 1957) and by 1982 had become established in California (Julien 1982). The weevil grub eats the seed within the unopened legume. When the pods open adult weevils are released to feed on the spines and flowers (Cowley 1983), sometimes defoliating large plants. In California, the weevil has been only partially successful in controlling gorse (Amme 1983). The plant often has enough food reserves in the root and stem to recover rapidly after serious injury (Evans 1942).
Two gorse management programs currently underway have associated monitoring studies to assess the effectiveness of control efforts. Such monitoring is probably qualitative, answering the question, "Does gorse reestablish itself following control treatment?" These two management programs are being conducted by Thomas Reid Associates on San Bruno Mountain in San Mateo County and by the California Department of Parks and Recreation at Jughandle State Reserve in Mendocino County. Analysis of aerial photographs of San Bruno Mountain shows that gorse has spread from 52 acres in 1932 to 334 acres in 1981, a 545% increase (Reid 1985). South Australia (Australia)
Legal Status: Proclaimed plant - for enhanced control throughout the state. Sale and movement of gorse plants or produce containing their seed are prohibited.
Gorse has been proclaimed for enforced control in South Australia since 1956. Control is centred around containing or removing infestations on pasture and road reserves, using herbicides or fire and grazing management. Most major infestations are on land of low value, where control is restricted by the available funding (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000). Taranaki Region (New Zealand)
U. europaeus is classified as a 'Containment pest plant' in the The Pest Management Strategy for Taranaki. 'Containment pest plants' are pest plants that are abundant in suitable habitats in a region or part of a region and for which the long-term goal is to prevent the spread of the plant to new areas or to neighbouring properties. Each pest plant has a management programme according to its designation. These programmes are summarised in the series of bulletins 'Pest Plant Facts'. Please see gorse: U. europaeus for pest plant facts and management programmes. Tasman District (New Zealand)
U. europaeus has been designated as a 'Progressive control pest' and 'Boundary control pest' by the the Tasman-Nelson Regional Pest Management Strategy. The strategy has its effect over the combined area that lies within the administrative boundaries of the Tasman District Council and Nelson City Council. In areas of low distribution (Howard-St Arnaud area) the objective of the strategy is to reduce the distribution and density of U. europaeus. In areas where it is widespread the objective is to require boundary control (control the spread of U. europaeus from adjacent properties to land clear of U. europaeus, or being cleared of it), and to invest in biocontrol. Please see Hierarchy of Plant Designations for an explanation of designation terminology. Tasmania (Australia)
Legal Status: II - Declared Weed. "A Statutory Management Plan being developed will detail measures required to be taken in respect of management. Priority will be give to managing sites free of gorse and areas of environmental significance" (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000). Biological: The gorse seed weevil (Exapion ulicis) was introduced in 1939 from New Zealand. It has had little impact. In 1998, six strains of the gorse spider mite (Tetranychus lintearius) were introduced from New Zealand into quarantine (originally from the UK, Spain and Portugal). Four strains have subsequently been released on to a total of 80 properties. Initial monitoring indicates that the spider mite has caused significant weakening of gorse plants. Plans are in place to introduce gorse thrips (Sericothrips staphylinus), the gorse pod moth (Cydia succedana) and the gorse soft shoot moth (Agonopterix ulicitella) once host specificity tests are complete (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000).
Parks and Wildlife Service, the Department of Roads and Transport and a number of councils have programmes in place to spray roadside infestations of gorse (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000). United States (USA)
The gorse seed weevil Apion ulicis is established in the western USA, but has not been effective in controlling gorse Victoria (Australia)
Legal Status: P2 Regionally Prohibited Weed (are not widely distributed throughout the region, are capable of further spread, and it is reasonable to expect they can be eradicated from the region). C8 Regionally Controlled Weed (occur in a region, are capable of spreading further and continuing control measures are required to prevent their spread). Biological: The gorse spider mite (Tetranychus lintearius) was introduced into quarantine in Victoria from New Zealand in 1998, six strains having originally being imported from the UK, Spain and Portugal. Since then all six strains have been released at 50 properties in Victoria. Initial monitoring indicates the spider mite is causing significant weakening to gorse plants. Plans are in place to release gorse thrips (Sericothrips staphylinus), the gorse pod moth (Cydia succedana) and the gorse soft shoot moth (Agonopterix ulicitella) once host specificity tests are complete (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, 2000). Washington (United States (USA))
Plants cut or burned to ground level may resprout from the crown. Burning often stimulates a flush of seedling germination after the first rain. Browsing and trampling by goats can greatly reduce seedling establishment and crown re-growth. Gorse is a Class B noxious weed in Washington (USDA-NRCS, 2003). Western Australia (Australia)
Legal Status: P1 (prevention of trade, sale or movement), P2 (eradicate - serious weeds which are not yet established), P3 (control - serious weeds that cannot be eradicated in short term but must be kept under control). P2 and P3 are not prescribed for the whole state.
Management Resources/Links
3. Alien Species in Poland Ulex europaeus
Summary: In 1999, the database on species introduced into Poland was developed at the Institute of Nature Conservation, Polish Academy of Sciences in Krakow for the Ministry of the Environment. In 2003, thanks to a grant from the US State Department, part of the data was translated and made accessible on the Internet. In 2003-2005, as a result of cooperation between a group of experts, new species were included. In 2005, the Polish database became a part of NOBANIS http://www.artportalen.se/nobanis/ which is an important gateway to data on invasive alien species in Northern and Central Europe.
Alien Species in Poland is available from: http://www.iop.krakow.pl/ias/default.asp
This page is available from: http://www.iop.krakow.pl/ias/species.asp?174 [Accessed December 15 2006] 6. Balneaves, J.M. and Zabkiewicz, J.A. (1981). Gorse control: a review. In: Chavazze, 1981, pp. 92-105. 7. Blood, Kate. pers.comm. 12 January 2001. Environmental Weed Education Coordinator. Cooperative Research Centre for Weed Management Systems (Weeds CRC), Keith Turnbull Research Institute (KTRI)
PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria, Australia 3199
Summary: field guide on environmental weeds for south eastern Australia. The field guide is in production and may be available in July 2001. I am unable to include the ref list here. Please acknowledge appropriately. Cheers, Kate Blood 10. Cook, M.J. (1987). Gorse Control in California Parklands. California Department of Food and Agriculture Pest Management Analysis and Planning. Sacramento, CA. 37 pp. 11. Daehler, C.C; Denslow, J.S; Ansari, S and Huang-Chi, K., 2004. A Risk-Assessment System for Screening Out Invasive Pest Plants from Hawaii and Other Pacific Islands. Conservation Biology Volume 18 Issue 2 Page 360.
Summary: A study on the use of a screening system to assess proposed plant introductions to Hawaii or other Pacific Islands and to identify high-risk species used in horticulture and forestry which would greatly reduce future pest-plant problems and allow entry of most nonpests. 13. Gaynor, D.L. and MacCarter, L.E. (1981). Biology, ecology, and control of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.): a bibliography. New Zealand J. Agricultural Res. 24: 123-137. 14. Hill RL, Gourlay AH, Fowler SV, 2000. The biological control programme against gorse in New Zealand. In: Spencer, Neal R, ed . Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, 4-14 July 1999, Bozeman, Montana, USA: Montana State University, 909-917. 15. Hill RL, Gourlay AH, Lee WG, Wilson JB, 1996. Dispersal of seeds under isolated gorse plants and the impact of biological control agents. Proceedings of the 49th New Zealand Plant Conference: 114-118. 16. Hill RL, Gourlay AH, Martin L, 1991. Seasonal and geographic variation in the predation of gorse seed, Ulex europaeus L., by the gorse seed weevil Apion ulicis Forst. in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 18:37-43. 17. Hill RL, Sandrey RA, 1986. The costs and benefits of gorse. Proceedings of the 39th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference: 70-73. 18. Hivert, J. 2003. Plantes exotiques envahissantes - Etat des méthodes de lutte mise en oeuvre par l'Office National des Forêts à La Réunion. ONF Réunion.
Summary: Synthèse des méthodes de lutte employées par l'ONF à la Réunion contre une vingtaine de plantes exotiques envahissantes. 21. Ivens GW, Mlowe F, 1980. A study of competition between seedlings of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) by means of a replacement series experiment. Weed Research, 20:183-191. 22. Kueffer, C. and Mauremootoo, J., 2004. Case Studies on the Status of Invasive Woody Plant Species in the Western Indian Ocean. 3. Mauritius (Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues). Forest Health & Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-3E. Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 23. Lee WG, Allen RB, Johnson PN, 1986. Succession and dynamics of gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) communities in the Dunedin Ecological District South Island New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 24:279-292. 24. MacCarter LE, Gaynor DL, 1981. Gorse: a subject for biological control in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 8:321-330. 30. Polster, David. Personal communication, 22 February 2002.
Summary: some management information. 31. Rees M, Hill RL, 2001. Large-scale disturbances, biological control and the dynamics of gorse populations. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38:364-377. 32. Richardson B, Vanner A, Ray J, Davenhill N, Coker G, 1996. Mechanisms of Pinus radiata growth suppression by some common forest weed species. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science, 26:421-437. 34. Tassin J, Riviere JN, 1999. Invasive plants on Reunion. Courrier de la Nature, 177:28-33. 39. Tulang M, 1992. The US Department of Agriculture’s rural development approach to alien plant control in Hawai’i: a case study. In: Stone CP, Smith CW, Tunison JT. Eds. Alien Plant Invasions in Native Ecosystems of Hawai’i: Management and Research. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawai’i. 41. Wilson, Colin, Wildlife Management Officer, Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment, Parks & Wildlife Service, Northern Territory, Australia.
Summary: Compilor of original GISD profile of Chromoleana odorata. 43. Zielke, K., Boateng, J.O., Caldicott, N. and Williams, H. 1992. Broom and gorse in British Columbia: a forestry perspective problem analysis. Queen's Printer for British Columbia. Victoria, BC. Results Page: 1
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