Management Information
Preventative measures: Whenever possible, efforts should be taken to prevent the introduction or encroachment of C. equisetifolia. For example, recently disturbed beach habitat may be planted with native vegetation to prevent C. equisetifolia from invading. A Risk Assessment of Casuarina equisetifolia for Hawai‘i and other Pacific islands was prepared by Dr. Curtis Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service. The alien plant screening system is derived from Pheloung et al. (1999) with minor modifications for use in Pacific islands (Daehler et al. 2004). The result is a score of 15 and a recommendation of: "Likely to cause significant ecological or economic harm in Hawai‘i and on other Pacific Islands as determined by a high WRA score, which is based on published sources describing species biology and behaviour in Hawai‘i and/or other parts of the world." Physical: Impacts to native plants should be minimised during any control activities. The general consensus is that seedlings, saplings and young trees are best removed manually. Swearingen (1997) states that for new or small infestations, manual removal of seedlings and saplings is recommended. Fire is reported to be effective only in dense stands with sufficient dry fuel on the ground. Caution recommends follow-up treatments. Prescribed fire has been used for large infestations in fire-tolerant communities. Raking and removal of leaf litter, cones, and seeds should be done whenever possible. Chemical: For heavier infestations, application of a systemic type herbicide to bark, cut stumps, or foliage is likely to be the most effective management tool. An industry-wide survey instituted by the US Exotic Pest Plant Council of current eradication methods employed against Casuarina disclosed that a 2% mixture of Garlon 4 in diesel oil applied using the basal bark method or the hack-and-squirt method is most commonly used. Another herbicide frequently used is Garlon 3A by Dow. Biological: Casuarina has no natural enemies in its North American distribution and has a phenomenal growth rate that outpaces most other plants. Elfers (1988) summarises management research programs and notes that the lymantriid moth, Lymantria xylina, is one of the worst pests of C. equisetifolia in China. There has been a high rate of root rot in Florida Casuarina caused by the fungus Clitocybe tabescens. This has occurred primarily on higher, well-drained, light, sandy soils where oak and other hardwood trees were predominant before clearing. Stem canker and dieback attributable to the fungus Diplodia natalensis have affected trees in Puerto Rico. Ants have been a major source of control in both Puerto Rico and India, which probably explains why this tree has not over-run Puerto Rico. Nursery seedlings in India are attacked by: Brachytrupes achatinus (a cricket), Arbela tetraonis (a bark-eating caterpillar), Coelosterna scabrata (a longicorn), and the grubs of Oryctes rhinoceros (the rhinoceros beetle).
Location Specific Management InformationAnegada Is. (Lesser Antilles)
On Anegada Is. there is concern that casuarina is capable of spreading all over the islands and it is recommended to remove all casuarina from the island (Veitch, 1998 in Varnham, 2006). Ascension Is. (Saint Helena)
Management Plan recommends mapping the distribution of invading vegetation (Pickup, 1999 in Varnham, 2006). It is suggested that attempting to prevent the spread of this tree in the Sisters area would be worthwhile (Ashmole and Ashmole, 2000 in Varnham, 2006). Bermuda
Casuarina equisetifolia is not thought to produce many juvenile plants. Seedlings and saplings removed from coastal nature reserves by volunteers. Value of native trees promoted by various government initiatives (Glasspool, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Cayman Brac (Cayman Islands)
Initial attempts at education have not been very successful because the tree is admired for its drooping foliage and shade (Burton, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Casuarina may be subject to future control or eradication in the future Barkers National Park on Grand Cayman (Burton, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Florida Everglades (United States (USA))
The emphasis of control has been in the eradication of new and emerging populations, to shrink the invasion before targeting the centre of the infestation. Grand Cayman (Cayman Islands)
Initial attempts at education have not been very successful because the tree is admired for its drooping foliage and shade (Burton, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Casuarina may be subject to future control or eradication in the future Barkers National Park on Grand Cayman (Burton, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Little Cayman (Cayman Islands)
Initial attempts at education have not been very successful because the tree is admired for its drooping foliage and shade (Burton, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Casuarina may be subject to future control or eradication in the future Barkers National Park on Grand Cayman (Burton, 2003 in Varnham, 2006). Santa Cruz Is. (Ecuador) (Ecuador)
To date no land owner has given permission for the control of Casuarina equisetifolia, but it is expected to be easy to eradicate, at a cost estimate of 18,650 USD over three years (Rachel Atkinson., pers.comm., July 2008). Rentería et al. (2007) documents costed eradication plans for 21 invasive species including Casuarina equisetifolia in Galapagos. The plans were developed as part of a GEF funded project ECU/00/G31 'Control of Invasive species in the Galapagos Archipelago'.
The management plans report projects at different stages of development and for species that have invaded to different extents. Three of the projects have already been finished successfully, 5 have yet to be started, and for the rest the projects have been running for between 1 and 6 years. The cost and time needed for eradication varies considerably by species and demonstrates the importance of species eradication as soon as possible after detection.
Please follow this link Rentería et al. 2006 to an illustrated guide providing practical information for the effective control of the worst invasive plant species in Galapagos. Designed for farmers and other land managers, it describes manual and chemical control methods. Casuarina equisetifolia is among 23 introduced species with descriptions and control options listed.
Management Resources/Links
2. Daehler, C.C; Denslow, J.S; Ansari, S and Huang-Chi, K., 2004. A Risk-Assessment System for Screening Out Invasive Pest Plants from Hawaii and Other Pacific Islands. Conservation Biology Volume 18 Issue 2 Page 360.
Summary: A study on the use of a screening system to assess proposed plant introductions to Hawaii or other Pacific Islands and to identify high-risk species used in horticulture and forestry which would greatly reduce future pest-plant problems and allow entry of most nonpests. 6. Kueffer, C. and Mauremootoo, J., 2004. Case Studies on the Status of Invasive Woody Plant Species in the Western Indian Ocean. 3. Mauritius (Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues). Forest Health & Biosecurity Working Papers FBS/4-3E. Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 9. Rentería, Jorge Luis; Rachel Atkinson & Chris Buddenhagen., 2007. Estrategias para la erradicación de 21 especies de plantas. Fundación Charles Darwin, Departamento de Botánica. Programa de Especies Invasoras en Galápagos
potencialmente invasoras en Galápagos.
Summary: This document comprises costed eradication plans for 21 invasive species in Galapagos. The plans were developed as part of a GEF funded project
ECU/00/G31 ¨Control of Invasive species in the Galapagos Archipelago¨. The management plans report projects at different stages of development and for species that have invaded to different extents. Three of the projects have already been finished successfully, 5 have yet to be started, and for the rest the projects have been running for between 1 and 6 years. The cost and time needed for eradication varies considerably by species and demonstrates the importance of species eradication as soon as possible after detection
Resumen
El presente documento proporciona planes de manejo y el costo para la erradicación de 21 especies que se encuentran presentes en Galápagos. Los planes fueron desarrollados como parte del proyecto ECU/00/G31 "Control de las especies invasoras en el Archipiélago de las Galápagos", suscrito por el Gobierno Ecuatoriano, representado por el Ministerio del Ambiente, con el Fondo para el Medio Ambiente Mundial (GEF). El Proyecto es implementado por el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (UNDP), tiene como instituciones ejecutoras al Servicio Parque Nacional Galápagos (SPNG), Instituto Nacional Galápagos (INGALA), Servicio Ecuatoriano de Sanidad Agropecuaria-Galápagos (SESA-Galápagos), y Fundación Charles Darwin (FCD). Los planes de manejo representan proyectos en diferentes estados de desarrollo y dimensión. Tres de estos proyectos ya han sido desarrollados completamente, trece están en proceso y cinco aún no se han iniciado. El costo y tiempo para la erradicación varia considerablemente según la especie y se muestra la importancia económica que implica desarrollar proyectos de erradicación tan pronto las especies son detectadas. Results Page: 1
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