Management Information
Preventative measures: Nyberg and Wallentinus (2005) state that Caulerpa taxifolia is one of five top risk species in Europe. The authors study quantitatively ranked species traits which facilitate introduction and predominance using interval arithmetic to search for common patterns among 113 marine macroalgae introduced in Europe. From the abstract Nyberg and Wallentinus (2005) “Three main categories were used: dispersal, establishment and ecological impact. These were further subdivided into more specific categories, a total of 13. Introduced species were compared with the same number of native species randomised from the same families as the introduced. Invasive species (i.e. species having a negative ecological or economical impact) were also compared with non-invasive introductions, separately for the three algal groups. In many categories, as well as when adding all species, the introduced species ranked more hazardous than the native species and the invasive species ranked higher than the non-invasive ones. The ranking within the three main categories differed, reflecting different strategies between the species within the three algal groups. When all categories (excluding salinity and temperature) were summed, the top five risk species, all invasive, were, in descending order, C. fragile spp. tomentosoides, Caulerpa taxifolia, Undaria pinnatifida, Asparagopsis armata and Grateloupia doryphora, while Sargassum muticum ranked eight and Caulerpa racemosa ten. Fifteen of the twenty-six species listed as invasive were among the twenty highest ranked”.Chemical: Colonies of C. taxifolia that were discovered in Southern California were eradicated by covering and sealing them with PVC tarpaulins and injecting liquid chlorine underneath. Subsequent treatments at another location used solid chlorine formulations (Anderson & Keppner, 2001). Costs of the Southern Californian eradication were $US2.33 million from 2000-01 for control and monitoring (Carlton, 2001), with an ongoing annual surveillance cost of $US1.2 million until 2004 (Anderson, 2004).
Application of coarse sea salt at a concentration of ~50kg/m˛ has been used with moderate success in Australia, eradicating C. taxifolia from an area almost 5200 m˛ in one case, although in another case an area of 3000 m˛ showed a reduction in algal density but eradication was not achieved. The use of this method in the cooler months, when C. taxifolia naturally dies back, was recommended. Salting has so far only been succesfully used on soft sediments in water <6m in depth (Glasby et. Al, 2004). Physical: Simply covering C. Taxifolia colonies with black PVC plastic was found to be reasonably successful in Croatia. A total area of 512 m˛ was treated, with either no or sporadic regrowth occurring after treatment (McEnnulty et. Al, 2001).
Manual removal by scuba divers was successful in eradicating a small patch of C. Taxifolia, around 3.4 m˛, in the French Mediterranean. The use of a suction pump to remove all fragments has also met with moderate success in other areas. Clearance rates for manual removal are from <1 m˛ to ~3 m˛ per diver per hour (McEnnulty et.al, 2001).
Location Specific Management InformationAdelaide (Australia)
Freshwater was pumped into the lakes to eradicate C. taxifolia at a cost of $AUS 6-8 million. Agua Hedionda lagoon (United States (USA))
Chemical: Caulerpa is killed using tarps and chlorine. Continued survellience to detect any re-introduction.
Preventative measures: The possession or sale of C. taxifolia is banned in California. Auckland Region (New Zealand)
A small amount of C. taxifolia was recently found in a saltwater aquarium in Auckland. NIWA ((National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research) collected a sample of C. taxifolia from the Auckland aquarium, extracted its DNA, and compared its sequence with the sequences of C. taxifolia strains recorded at GenBank – the international repository of DNA sequence data. The ITS sequence from the Auckland sample was identical to that in samples from the Caribbean, and from the Red Sea, and was clearly different from that in the invasive Mediterranean and Californian aquarium strain. MFish, New Zealand (Ministry of Fisheries) has launched an education programme aimed at aquarium enthusiasts which explains the risks to New Zealand from C. taxifolia and how to identify it. is one of the seven key species that MFish is targeting through its biosecurity research contract with NIWA on the surveillance of ports and harbours around New Zealand (NIWA Science, 2002). C. taxifolia has been designated as a Surveillance Pest by the Auckland Regional Pest Management Pest Management Strategy 2002-2007. Please see Hierarchy of Plant Designations for an explanation of designation terminology. California (United States (USA))
Chemical: Plants are sealed under PVC tarps and liquid chlorine injected. Solid chlorine tablets are used later. Costs for control will exceed $US 1 million, including post-treatment monitoring.
Preventative measures: The possession or sale of C. taxifolia is banned in California. Dolin Is. (Croatia)
Eradication was carried out in 1996 using manual removal, but C. taxifolia reappeared in 2001. Elba Is. (Italy)
No control strategy has been implemented. Huntington Harbour (United States (USA))
Preventative measures: The possession or sale of C. taxifolia is banned in California. Hvar Is. (Croatia)
Isolated colonies were covered with black plastic sheets on an annual basis. This has not been effective in preventing further spread. Imperia (Italy)
No control strategy has been implemented. Liguria (Italy)
No control strategy has been implemented. Malinska (Croatia)
A benthic vacuum is used annually to remove plants. This has not been effective in preventing further spread. Mallorca Is. (Spain)
The use of a benthic vacuum and exposure to copper ions are used by regional authorities to slow the rate of spread. Mediterranean Sea
Detection, evaluation and communication of information about spread of Caulerpa seen as methods to managing the problem. New South Wales (Australia)
Authors notes from a study on the use of different options in controlling C. taxifolia state, "Various methods for controlling the alga were trialed. The application of coarse sea salt at a concentration of 50 kg/m(2) was found to be the most effective method as it rapidly killed the alga, had relatively minor effects on native biota (seagrass and infauna) and was relatively inexpensive. In small-scale trials, frond density of C. taxifolia had decreased by 70-95% one week after salting and no fronds were present after 1 or 6 months. Seagrass and infauna were also affected by salt, but abundances had generally recovered after 6 months. The effectiveness of salting at larger scales depended on the method of application and salting appeared to be most successful in the cooler months when C. taxifolia dies back naturally. Results of large-scale salting trials were mixed. In one waterway, a single application of salt resulted in the apparent removal of almost 5200 m(2) of C. taxifolia; in another, repeated salting of a 3000 m(2) infestation led to a considerable reduction in the density of the alga, but no overall change in the boundaries of the infestation. Eradication of C. taxifolia from New South Wales is unlikely, but local control measures, extensive monitoring and experimentation are continuing in an attempt to limit the impact of this invasive alga". Sousse (Tunisia)
No control strategy has been implemented. Southern California (United States (USA))
Chemical: C. taxifolia can be controlled using chlorine.
Preventative measures: The possession or sale of C. taxifolia is banned in California. Sydney (Australia)
Possible management framework for future incursions. Toscana (Italy)
No control strategy has been implemented.
Management Resources/Links
1. Anderson, L. W. J. 2004. Eradication of Caulerpa taxifolia in the US five years after discovery: are we there yet? In 13th International Conference on Aquatic Invasive Species, September 20-24, 2004, Ennis, County Clare, Ireland.
Summary: An abstract about the eradication of C. taxifolia in Southern California. 5. Boudouresque, C. F., Meinesz, A. and Gravez, V. 1994. First International Workshop on Caulerpa taxifolia, Nice, France, 17-18 janvier 1994. GIS Posidonie, Marseille, France. 392pp.
Summary: This book includes a synthese of results of the CE- LIFE Program "Spreading of the tropical seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranean" and the 46 lectures presented on the First International Workhop on Caulerpa taxifolia. 6. Boudouresque, C. F., Meinesz, A. and Gravez, V. 1998. Scientific papers and documents dealing with the alga Caulerpa taxifolia introduced to the Mediterranean, Ninth edition. GIS Posidonie publishers, Marseille, France: 1-60.
Summary: This publication contents the bibliographic references of 358 documents and scientific papers about Caulerpa taxifolia invasion in the Mediterranean Sea. 7. Carlton, J. T. 2001. Introduced species in U.S. coastal waters: environmental impacts and management priorities. Pew Oceans Commission, Arlington, Virginia.
Summary: An overview of many introduced marine species in the U.S. 8. Commonwealth of Australia. 2004. Environment, Communications, Information Technology and the Arts References Committee: report on the regulation, control and management of invasive species and the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment (Invasive Species) Bill 2002.
Summary: A small amount of information on the cost of eradicating C. taxifolia from the West Lakes in Adelaide, South Australia. 9. Coquillard, P., Thibaut, T., Hill, D. R. C., Gueugnot, J., Mazel, C. and Coquillard, Y. 2000. Simulation of the mollusc Ascoglossa Elysia subornata population dynamics: application to the potential biocontrol of Caulerpa taxifolia growth in the Mediterranean Sea. Ecological Modelling 135: 1-16.
Summary: Growth, survival, reproduction. 12. Gacia, E., Rodríguez-Prieto, C., Delgado, O. and Ballesteros, E. 1996. Seasonal light and temperatura responses of Caulerpa taxifolia from the northwestern Mediterranean. Aquatic Botany: 215-225.
Summary: Seasonal light requirements and temperature tolerance of the Mediterranean C. taxifolia were examined by means of photosynthetic assays. These results indicate that this species is well adapted to light abd temperature typical of the infralittoral and upper circalittoral zone in the Mediterranean. Its annual productivity pattern seems less affected by seasonal fluctiations than has beeb reported for endemic seaweeds; this response may explain its potentially high invasive capacity. 13. Glasby, T., Creese, B., Gibson, P. 2004. The spread and attempted control of the invasive seaweed, Caulerpa taxifolia, in New South Wales, Australia. In 13th International Conference on Aquatic Invasive Species, September 20-24, 2004, Ennis, County Clare, Ireland.
Summary: Information on the use of salting to control C. taxifolia. 14. Glasby, T.M., Creese, R.G., and Gibson, P.T. Experimental use of salt to control the invasive marine alga Caulerpa taxifolia in New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 122(4): 573-580, 2005. 16. Meinesz A., Cottalorda J. M., Chiaverni D., Cassar N and De Vaugelas J. (1998) Suivi de l'invasion de l'algue tropicale de l'algue tropicale Caulerpa taxifolia en Mediterranée: situation au 31 décembre 1997. Lab. Environnement Marin Litoral, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis publications: 1-238.
Summary: Report on the expansion of Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranean coasts at end of 1997: 5 countries affected, 99 stations cited, 4630 ha concerned, 81 km of coast affected. The report included the cartography of the C. taxifolia populations in each station. 17. Meinesz, A., Cottalorda, J.M., Chiaverini, D., Thibaut, T. and Vaugelas, J. 2001. Evaluating and disseminating information concerning the spread of Caulerpa taxifolia along the French Mediterranean coasts. In Abstracts: Second International Conference on Marine Bioinvasions, March 9-11, 2001. New Orleans, LA
Summary: Methods in understanding the spread of Caulerpa along the French Mediterranean coast.
Available from: http://massbay.mit.edu/publications/marinebioinvasions/mbi2_abstracts.pdf [Accessed 23 January 2009] 19. National Introduced Marine Pest Information System (NIMPIS) 2002. Caulerpa taxifolia species summary. National Introduced Marine Pest Information System (Eds: Hewitt C.L., Martin R.B., Sliwa C., McEnnulty, F.R., Murphy, N.E., Jones T. & Cooper, S.).
Summary: Links are provided from the species summary page to more information on Common Names, Synonyms, Identification Notes, Similar Species, Morphology, Reproduction, Life Cycle, Habitat, Survival, Food, Competitors, Predators, Impact information, Vectors, Dispersal, Control options and additional information.
NIMPIS is available from: http://www.marine.csiro.au/crimp/nimpis/
This species summary is available from: http://www.marine.csiro.au/crimp/nimpis/spsummary.asp?txa=9447 [Accessed 23 January 2009] 20. National Pest Plant Accord, 2001. Biosecurity New Zealand.
Summary: The National Pest Plant Accord is a cooperative agreement between regional councils and government departments with biosecurity responsibilities. Under the accord, regional councils will undertake surveillance to prevent the commercial sale and/or distribution of an agreed list of pest plants.
Available from: http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests-diseases/plants/accord.htm [Accessed 11 August 2005] 22. Ribera, M. A., Ballesteros, E., Boudouresque, C. F., Gómez, A. and Gravez, V. 1996. Second International Workhop on Caulerpa taxifolia. Barcelona, Spain, 15-17 December 1994. Publicacions Universitat de Barcelona: 1-457.
Summary: This book includes a synthese of results of the CE- LIFE Program "Spreading of the tropical seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranean" and the 54 lectures presented on the Second International Workhop on Caulerpa taxifolia. 25. Thresher, R. E., Kuris, A. M. 2004. Options for managing invasive marine species. Biological Invasions 6: 295-300.
Summary: A review of management techniques used for invasive marine species. 27. Williams, S. K., Grosholz, E. D. 2002. Preliminary reports from the Caulerpa taxifolia invasion in southern California. Marine Ecology Progress Series 233: 307-310.
Summary: Reports on in situ observations of a C. taxifolia invasion in Huntington Harbour, California. Results Page: 1
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