Management Information
Location Specific Management InformationAmerican Samoa
In early 1978, approximately 38 4500 individual A. planci were collected from two small bays on the northeast coast of Tutuila. A total of approximately 486 900 individuals were removed from the ocean (Birkeland and Randall 1979, in Birkeland 1982). The later collection used a bounty system and cost a total of $US 73 000 (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). Barnum's Wall (Palau)
The dive shops profiting from the natural beauty of such reefs have been criticised for not taking it upon themselves to initiate clean-up efforts. Double Reef (Guam)
In November 1968 divers removed 886 starfish from the reef. Egypt
The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) have reduced the impact to the reefs by organising the removal of over 60 000 starfish between 1998 and 1999. Feather Is. (Australia)
Done (1988) used a computer modelling system to estimate recovery times for these locations to range from 9 years to greater than 100 years. Estimates increase with increasing coral size and are based on data collected for Porites spp. Fiji
Approximately 9 900 individual A. planci were destroyed (Owens 1971, Weber and Woodhead 1970, in Birkeland 1982). German Channel (Palau)
The dive shops profiting from the natural beauty of such reefs have been criticised for not taking it upon themselves to initiate clean-up efforts. German Wall (Palau)
The dive shops profiting from the natural beauty of such reefs have been criticised for not taking it upon themselves to initiate clean-up efforts. Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
The Reef Monitoring Database contains research data from 1982 to present. Initially data were derived mainly from ecological surveys of the crown-of-thorns starfish A. planci and associated benthic communities on the Great Barrier Reef (Baker and Coleman 2000). Green Is. (Australia) (Australia)
Done (1988) used a computer modelling system to estimate recovery times for these locations to range from 9 years to greater than 100 years. Estimates increase with increasing coral size and are based on data collected for Porites spp.
44 000 individual A. planci were killed at Green Island but many remained (Barnes 1966, Endean 1973 1974, Endean and Stablum 1975, Harding 1968, in Birkeland 1982). However the control project would have had to commenced earlier for there to have been any chance of success (in terms of reducing damage to coral) (Pearson, in Birkeland and Lucus 1990). Grub Reef (Australia)
A crown-of-thorns starfish control program was conducted at Grub Reef (central Great Barrier Reef) in an area (0.64 km˛) which encompassed 53 individual patch reefs. During a two week period, 15 divers injected 3175 starfish with copper sulphate. The program was considered unsuccessful. Although starfish abundance had declined significantly after the control efforts, biological surveys indicated that a relatively large numer of starfish remained. The surveys also indicated a general decline in the number of starfish along the reef perimeter, outside the control area. The total cost of the control program was $A35 per starfish. These results have important implications for the implementation of future control programs and highlight the need to undertake before and after biological surveys to assess the effectiveness of the control efforts (Johnson Moran and Driml 1990). Holbourne Is. (Australia)
The small size and isolation of the area encouraged an attempt to entirely eradicate the population. 20 Army and Navy divers injected approximately 8000 starfish with copper sulphate, eliminating about 70% of the population. However the program was considered unsuccessful because a major portion of the coral was killed. Delays resulting from bad weather contributed to the failure (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). John Brewer Is. (Australia)
Done (1988) used a computer modelling system to estimate recovery times for these locations to range from 9 years to greater than 100 years. Estimates increase with increasing coral size and are based on data collected for Porites spp. Light House Reef (Palau)
This site is a primary focus of Palau's clean up efforts. Clean up efforts involve visual searches for A. planci from a speed boat. The first site found was heavily infested with starfish with about 50% live coral cover remaining. The site was dominated by Acroporas, Montiporas and Fungiids, all of which were being destroyed. Boulder type Porites were also present but less affected by the starfish. The second site of starfish infestation was located outside the reed midway between the light house and the cliff faces of Ngeruktabel island (Coral-feeding starfish clean-up 2002). Between April to June 2002 a total of 1120 starfish were collected, and over 4000 starfish have been removed to date (Quarterly Report 2002). Lolita's Coral Gardens (Palau)
Although the coral-feeding starfish does not pose an immediate threat to this site constant monitoring is needed to ensure this valuable reef is protected from the impact of this invasive starfish. Okinawa (Japan)
Approximately 240 000 individual A. planci were removed by control measures. Palau
In 1979 approximately 354 500 individual A. planci were removed from Ngederrak Reef, but more remained south of Urukthapel (Birkeland and Lucus 1990; S. Birk Pers. Comm., in Birkeland 1982). A bounty system was used to collect the starfish and cost approximately $US 71 000 (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). Support for the programme was high and participation was enthusiastic (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). The project was supported by the Marine Resources Division of the Government of Palau, who towed a pontoon barge to the collecting sites (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). The barge served as a site for the dumping of collected starfish, which were baked in the sun for 12 hours and then deposited in a designated landfill (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). Success of the programme probably depended on the ease of accessing starfish sites, which were easily accessed by snorkelling or wading (Birkeland and Lucus 1990).
More recent occurrances of the crown of thorn starfish in Palau have left authorities unsure of whether to act. In general their policy is non-intervention, however massive coral bleaching events have increased the need to protect as much coral as possible to ensure that as many corals as possible spawn (Palau Conservation Society 1999). The case seen in the late 1990s was not a population outbreak making it more likely that a control project would be effective and that there would not be a requirement for continual removal (Palau Conservation Society 1999). The Palau Conservation Society proposed the following management programme (1999): collect data of pre-control densities of A. planci, remove and kill A. planci recording numbers removed and cost of operation, describe corals in the area and collect data of post-control densities. The areas selected for control were high-value areas that were assessed according to the amount and type of living corals and the use of the area for tourism and recreation. By 2002 Palau had shifted to a clean-up policy much different to the "shot gun" clean-up of the past (Quarterly Report 2002). Only a few priority sites were focussed on by authorities but removal of starfish was thorough, with work effort concentrated on these sites until all A. planci had been removed (Quarterly Report 2002). Another positive aspect of efforts to mitigate the effects of the invasive starfish was an attempt to attract other organisations, such as dive shops and tour operators, to "adopt a reef" (Quarterly Report 2002). Organisations supporting the cause include: The Palau International Aquarium, Palau Conservation Society, Koror State Rangers, Koror State Government, Planet Blue Sea Kayak Tours and Sam's Dive Tours (Quarterly Report 2002). As crown of thorn starfish outbreaks are quite extensive in Palau it has become obvious that the present efforts are valuable but not comprehensive enough to save the corals of Palau (Quarterly Report 2002). Pinchers West (Palau)
No matter how many A. planci are removed new migrants are constantly found. The high artificial nutrient levels found inside Malakal Harbour may be a possible explanation for this. Potter Is. (Australia)
Done (1988) used a computer modelling system to estimate recovery times for these locations to range from 9 years to greater than 100 years. Estimates increase with increasing coral size and are based on data collected for Porites spp. Rarotonga Is. (Cook Islands)
Approximately 81 000 individual A. planci were destroyed. Red Sea
Preventive measures are essential if the coral reefs of the Red Sea are to be protected (Vicente 1999). Rib Is. (Australia)
Done (1988) used a computer modelling system to estimate recovery times for these locations to range from 9 years to greater than 100 years. Estimates increase with increasing coral size and are based on data collected for Porites spp. Rota Is. (Northern Mariana Islands)
A bounty systems was used on Rota Island to control A. planci but failed, probably due to the inaccessibility of the areas of starfish infestation 579 (Birkeland and Lucus 1990). Ryukyu Islands (Japan)
The most important reason for the failure to prevent A. planci from devastating the reefs of the Ryukyus was that funds were allocated in single-year amounts based on the situation of the previous year (Yamaguchi, in Birkeland and Lucus 1990). By the time the funds became available the outbreaks were at their maximum density or already on the decrease. Saipan Is. (Northern Mariana Islands)
Thousands of individual A. planci were killed (J. Villagomez Pers. Comm., in Birkeland 1982). Tanguisson Reef (Guam)
Approximately 63 000 individual A. planci were destroyed (Randall 1971, Marsh and Tsuda 1973, in Birkeland 1982). Tinian Is. (Northern Mariana Islands)
A bounty systems was used on Tinian Island to control A. planci but failed, probably due to the inaccessibility of the areas of starfish infestation 579 in Birkeland and Lucus 1990).
Management Resources/Links
1. Al-Jufaili, S., Al-Jabri, M., Al-Baluchi, A., Baldwin, R.M., Wilson, S.C., West, F. and Matthews, A.D. 1999. Human impacts on coral reefs in the Sultanate of Oman, Estuarine Coastal & Shelf Science. 49(SUPPL. A): 65-74.
Summary: An interesting report of the state of coral communities in Oman and the human and natural impacts contributing to their degradation. 2. Bell, P.R.F. 1992. Eutrophication and coral reefs some examples in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon, Water Research 26 (5): 553-568.
Summary: Algal growth and high nutrient levels are investigated in relation to the Great Barrier Reef (Australia). 3. Birkeland, C. 1982. Terrestrial Runoff As a Cause of Outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea), Marine Biology 69: 175-185
Summary: This paper analyses the distinct possibility that historical outbreaks of A. planci can be linked to fluctuations in phytoplanktons, in particular because of heavy rain seasons in Micronesia and Polynesia. 4. Birkeland, C. and Lucus, J.S. 1990. Acanthaster planci: major management problems of coral reefs. Florida: CRC Press.
Summary: An online book available in limited form. Overview of global management strategies for the crown of thorns starfish. 5. Black, K.P. and Moran, P.J. 1991. Influence of hydrodynamics on the passive dispersal and initial recruitment of larvae of Acanthaster Planci Echinodermata Asteroidea on the Great Barrier Reef, Marine Ecology Progress Series 69 (1-2): 55-65.
Summary: Study which has implications for A. planci control, in particular for the development of early warning systems. 6. Brodie, J., Fabricius, K., De'ath, G. and Okaji, K. 2005. Are increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish?, Marine Pollution Bulletin 51 (1-4): 266-278.
Summary: A study looking at evidence linking A. planci outbreaks with nutrient run-offs. 7. Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (CEFAS)., 2008. Decision support tools-Identifying potentially invasive non-native marine and freshwater species: fish, invertebrates, amphibians.
Summary: The electronic tool kits made available on the Cefas page for free download are Crown Copyright (2007-2008). As such, these are freeware and may be freely distributed provided this notice is retained. No warranty, expressed or implied, is made and users should satisfy themselves as to the applicability of the results in any given circumstance. Toolkits available include 1) FISK- Freshwater Fish Invasiveness Scoring Kit (English and Spanish language version); 2) MFISK- Marine Fish Invasiveness Scoring Kit; 3) MI-ISK- Marine invertebrate Invasiveness Scoring Kit; 4) FI-ISK- Freshwater Invertebrate Invasiveness Scoring Kit and AmphISK- Amphibian Invasiveness Scoring Kit
These tool kits were developed by Cefas, with new VisualBasic and computational programming by Lorenzo Vilizzi, David Cooper, Andy South and Gordon H. Copp, based on VisualBasic code in the original Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) tool kit of P.C. Pheloung, P.A. Williams & S.R. Halloy (1999).
The decision support tools are available from: http://www.cefas.co.uk/projects/risks-and-impacts-of-non-native-species/decision-support-tools.aspx [Accessed 13 January 2009]
The guidance document is available from http://www.cefas.co.uk/media/118009/fisk_guide_v2.pdf [Accessed 13 January 2009]. 8. Chess, J.R., Hobson, E.S. and Howard, D.F. 1997. Interactions between Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata, Asteroidea) and Scleractinian Corals at Kona, Hawai'I, Pacific Science 51 (2): 121-133.
Summary: A study of feeding preferences of A. planci in an Hawaiian reef. 9. De'ath, G. and Moran, P.J. 1998. Factors affecting the behaviour of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci L.) on the Great Barrier Reef: 1: Patterns of activity, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology & Ecology 220 (1): 83-106.
Summary: Feeding behaviour and activity times of A. planci. 10. Done, T.J. 1988. Simulation of recovery of pre-disturbance size in populations of Porites spp. damaged by the of thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, Marine Biology 100: 51-61.
Summary: Estimation for recovery times for five reefs in the Great Barrier Reef are caculated using models. 11. Fraser, N., Crawford, B.R. and Kusen, J. 2000. Best practices guide for crown-of-thorns clean-ups. Proyek Pesisir Special Publication. Coastal Resources Center Coastal Management Report #2225. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, Rhode Island. 38 pages.
Summary: The authors present a best practices guide for the control of A. planci. 12. Harriott, V., Goggin, L. and Sweatman, H. 2003. Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef. Current state of knowledge. November 2003 (revised edition). CRC Reef Research Centre Ltd.
Summary: This paper provides a detailed overview on the current thinking of the causative factors behind A. planci outbreaks, as well as recommended control options. 13. Hill, J. and Wilkinson, C. 2004. Methods for Ecological Monitoring of Coral Reefs - A Resource for Managers.Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Summary: A look at monitoring methods for managers of coral reefs. 14. Johnson, D.B., Moran, P.J. and Driml, S. 1990. Evaluation of a crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci control Program at Grub Reef Central Great Barrier Reef Australia, Coral Reefs 9 (3): 167-171.
Summary: Review of a control project carried out at Grub Reef (Great Barrier Reef, Australia). 15. Keesing, J.K., Wiedermeyer, W.L., Okaji, K., Halford, A.R., Hall, K.C. and Cartwright, C.M. 1996. Mortality rates of juvenile starfish Acanthaster planci and Nardoa spp. measured on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia and in Okinawa, Japan, Oceanologica Acta 19 (3-4): 441-448.
Summary: Study providing evidence of the importance of predation as a determinant of survival rates of small starfish. 16. Lassig, B. Controlling crown-of-thorns starfish. 1995. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
Summary: This paper provides comprehensive information on the management options for A. planci. 17. Ravindran, J., Raghukumar, C. and Raghukumar, S. 1999. Disease and stress-induced mortality of corals in Indian reefs and observations on bleaching of corals in the Andamans, Current Science (Bangalore) 76 (2): 233-237.
Summary: Report on the status of coral reefs in some locations in the Andamans (India). 18. Sano, M. 2000. Stability of reef fish assemblages: Responses to coral recovery after catastrophic predation by Acanthaster planci, Marine Ecology Progress Series 198: 121-130.
Summary: An interesting look at the recovery of reefs at Iriomote Island (Ryukyu Islands, Japan) - one of the places most affected by A. planci predation. 19. Seymour, R.M. and Bradbury, R.H.1999. Lengthening reef recovery times from crown-of-thorns outbreaks signal systemic degradation of the Great Barrier Reef, Marine Ecology Progress Series. 176 (0): 1-10.
Summary: Worrying study on the recovery time for reefs of the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), which uses mathematical models to predict recovery rates. 20. Sluka, R.D. and Miller, M.W. 1999. Status of crown-of-thorns starfish in Laamu Atoll, Republic of Maldives, Bulletin of Marine Science 65 (1): 253-258.
Summary: Results of a survey for the presence of A. planci in the Maldives. 21. Teruya, T., Suenaga, K. Koyama, T., Nakano, Y. and Uemura, D. 2001. Arachidonic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, feeding attractants for the crown-of-thorns sea star Acanthaster planci, from the sea urchin Toxopneustes pileolus, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology & Ecology 266 (2): 123-134.
Summary: Details the discovery of chemical compounds derived from a sea urchin which could be potentially used as feeding attractants in the control of A. planci. Results Page: 1
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