General Impact
Replaces native non-tree vegetation, such as grassland and shrubland, and transforms such habitats. It invades the understorey of relatively open pine and eucalypt plantations (Geldenhuys, 1986 & 1996). Tree stands facilitate the establishment of natural evergreen forest species and the development of regrowth forest (Geldenhuys, 1996). Windfalls obstruct water flow along invaded streams and rivers. Root suckering, it may require root barriers when planted for landscaping in built-up areas (FUF).
Location Specific Impacts:Eastern Cape (South Africa) 
Competition: Dense stands shadow out grassland and shrubland.
Economic/Livelihoods: Invader plant control in grassland, shrubland, water courses and plantation understorey is expensive.
Modification of hydrology: Excessive water use of dense stands in riparian zones – still relatively confined. KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa)
Competition: Dense stands shadow out grassland and shrubland.
Economic/Livelihoods: Invader plant control in grassland, shrubland, water courses and plantation understorey is expensive.
Modification of hydrology: Excessive water use of dense stands in riparian zones – still relatively confined. Limpopo (South Africa)
Competition: Dense stands shadow out grassland and shrubland.
Economic/Livelihoods: Invader plant control in grassland, shrubland, water courses and plantation understorey is expensive.
Modification of hydrology: Excessive water use of dense stands in riparian zones – still relatively confined. Mpumalanga (South Africa)
Competition: Dense stands shadow out grassland and shrubland.
Economic/Livelihoods: Invader plant control in grassland, shrubland, water courses and plantation understorey is expensive.
Modification of hydrology: Excessive water use of dense stands in riparian zones – still relatively confined. Southern Cape Forests (South Africa)
Agricultural: Becomes established in abandoned agricultural land.
Competition: Invades open species-rich sclerophyllous shrubland (fynbos).
Economic/Livelihoods: Contributes more than 50% of timber cut from the natural forests and reduces pressure on the natural forest. Current control costs over US$100 000/annum.
Modification of hydrology: Dense surface roots of young stands dry out soil in riparian zones. Trees fall into streams during floods, constraining water flow and increasing impact of floods. Western Cape (South Africa)
Competition: Dense stands shadow out grassland and shrubland.
Economic/Livelihoods: Invader plant control in grassland, shrubland, water courses and plantation understorey is expensive.
Modification of hydrology: Excessive water use of dense stands in riparian zones – still relatively confined. Waikamoi Preserve (United States (USA))
Competition: Spreading vegetatively in pine plantations in Waikamoi Preserve.
Modification of hydrology: Began to escape from the plantations into adjacent drainages.
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