General Impact
Maconellicoccus hirsutus feeds on a large number of plant species, including many important horticultural and agricultural crops such as coffee, guava, citrus, grape, peanuts, rose, beans, coconuts, maize, sugar cane, soursop, soybean, cotton, and other fiber crops (Ranjan, 2006; Ujjan & Shahzad, 2007; Reddy et al., 2009). The feeding of M. hirsutus causes malformation of shoots and leaves believed to be caused by the injection of a toxic saliva (Kairo et al., 2000). In addition to lowering the aesthetics of the plant, this deformation can also result in lowered crop yields and plant mortality in heavy infestations (Kairo et al., 2000; Chong et al., 2008). Like other sap sucking insects, M. hirsutus also excretes a sugary honeydew on which sooty mold develops, further deteriorating the quality of the agricultural or forest product (Gonzalez-Gaona et al., 2010). The presence of large quantities of wax, characteristic of M. hirsutus infestations, also reduces the aesthetic and commercial value of ornamentals (Kairo et al., 2000). The overall potential annual cost of control and damages to the US economy from M. hirsutus has been estimated to be around US$ 700 million, with the global estimate being around US$ 5 billion (Ranjan, 2006).
Location Specific Impacts:Anguilla 
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus has been recorded as a general pest on various agricultural and tree species (Varnham, 2006). No further details found. Tortola Is. (British Virgin Islands)
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus has been recorded as a general pest on various agricultural and tree species (Varnham, 2006). No further details found. Grand Cayman (Cayman Islands)
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus poses a threat to a myriad of plant species in the area such as: hibiscus, citrus, coconut, avocado, carambola, grape, guava, mango, cotton, soybean, sugarcane, certain forest trees, various vegetable crops, and numerous types of ornamentals (NAPPO, 2006). Egypt
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus has caused severe economic damage in Egypt as a pest on a wide range of plant species (Kairo et al., 2000), in particular; Albizia lebbek (Leguminosae), Morus alba (Moraceae) and Hibiscus spp. (Malvaceae) (Bartlett, 1978; in Kairo et al., 2000). Grenada
Damage to host species: Native vegetation was also affected by M. hirsutus with a 38 ha area of blue mahoe (Hibiscus elatus) being destroyed on Grenada (Kairo et al., 2000).
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus kirsutus has had a variety of economic impacts in Grenada. Export of fresh fruits and flowers from infested areas have been restricted, threatening regional trade in agricultural products and hotels have experienced increased cost for landscaping and replacement of the infested hibiscus and other ornamental plants (Sagarra & Peterkin, 1999). Finally, the timber industry and watersheds are also under the threat of M. hirsutus since several important species of forest trees are also affected (Sagarra & Peterkin, 1999). In 1997, USDA estimated that economic losses exceeded US $3.5 million a year in Grenada (Sagarra & Peterkin, 1999).
Reduction in native biodiversity: Native vegetation was also affected by M. hirsutus with a 38 ha area of blue mahoe (Hibiscus elatus) being destroyed on Grenada (Kairo et al., 2000). Karnataka (India)
Agricultural: Infestation of M. hirsutus on mulberry causes an apical shoot malformation commonly known as "Tukra", causing significant qualitative and quantitative damage to the mulberry (Srinivas et al., 2007). The average incidence of Tukra in mulberry is reported to be 34.24 %, leading to an estimated leaf yield loss of about 4500 kg/ ha/ vr. In mulberry crop systems (Srinivas et al., 2007).
Damage to host species: Infestation of M. hirsutus on mulberry causes an apical shoot malformation commonly known as "Tukra", causing significant qualitative and quantitative damage to the mulberry (Srinivas et al., 2007). The average incidence of Tukra in mulberry is reported to be 34.24 %, leading to an estimated leaf yield loss of about 4500 kg/ ha/ vr. In mulberry crop systems (Srinivas et al., 2007).
Economic/Livelihoods: Infestation of M. hirsutus on mulberry causes an apical shoot malformation commonly known as "Tukra", causing significant qualitative and quantitative damage to the mulberry (Srinivas et al., 2007). The average incidence of Tukra in mulberry is reported to be 34.24 %, leading to an estimated leaf yield loss of about 4500 kg/ ha/ vr. In mulberry crop systems (Srinivas et al., 2007). Sind (Pakistan)
Agricultural: Maconellicoccus hirsutus has become a serious pest of cotton in the southern regions of Sind and other areas in Pakistan, while also threatening other important economic crops such as fiber crops (Hibiscus sabdariffa, H. cannabinus and Boehmeria nivea), grapevine, mulberry and pigeonpea (Ujjan & Shahzad, 2007).
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus has become a serious pest of cotton in the southern regions of Sind and other areas in Pakistan, while also threatening other important economic crops such as fiber crops (Hibiscus sabdariffa, H. cannabinus and Boehmeria nivea), grapevine, mulberry and pigeonpea (Ujjan & Shahzad, 2007). Saint Kitts and Nevis
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus affected a wide range of plant species on St. Kitts with an estimated loss of US $ 280, 000 for the period October 1995 to January 1997 (Francis, 1999; in Kairo et al., 2000). Additionally, in 1997, onion production experienced a loss of over US$ 22,000 in exports to regional markets (Kairo et al., 2000). Saint Lucia
Economic/Livelihoods: The economic damage of Maconellicoccus hirsutus on St. Lucia was estimated to be around US $ 67, 000 (Anon, 1999; in Kairo et al., 2000). Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Economic/Livelihoods: The economic damage of Maconellicoccus hirsutus on St. Vincent and the Grenadines was estimated to be around US $ 3.4 million (Edwards, 1999; in Kairo et al., 2000). P'ing-tung (Taiwan)
Interaction with other invasive species: The mean number of Maconellicoccus hirsutus nymphs (6.82/branch) and adults (0.14/branch) on hibiscus with nests built by ants were all significantly higher than those on branches without ant nests (1.64/branch and 0.01/branch, respectively). Ant species observed interacting with M. hirsutus include: the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis longipes = Anoplolepis gracilipes); the big-headed ant Pheidole megacephala (Pheidole megacephala); the fire ant (Solenopsis geminata); the ghost ant (Tapinoma melanocephalum) and Polyrhachis dives (Shen et al., 2007). With the exception of P. dives, these ants are able to construct their nests using soil on the stem base of a plant to protect M. hirsutus colonies, consequently influencing its occurrence and abundance (Shen et al., 2007) while also using the sugary honeydew produced by M. hirsutus as an important food source. ome species of ant such as P. megacephala have been shown to actively defend M. hirsutus in laboratory studies, with the killing and removal of all predatory Cryptolaemus montrouzieri individuals added within 135.5 min (Lai & Chang, 2007). However, while ants may protect M. hirsuta from other predators,P. megacephala was shown to predate adult M. hirsuta in the absence of other protein sources in the lab. Based on P. megacephala nest analysis, it is presumed that the eggs of M. hirsutus are consumed for protein while adults are generally not predated and used as a source of honeydew (Lai & Chang, 2007). Trinidad and Tobago
Economic/Livelihoods: Potential losses to agriculture and forestry in Trinidad and Tobago due to Maconellicoccus hirsutus infestations were estimated at US $ 125 million (PMC, 1996; in Kairo et al., 2000). However, in a recent study of the socio-economic impact of the hibiscus mealybug in Trinidad (Singh, 1999; in Kairo et al., 2000) it was indicated that costs of over US $ 5.1 million were incurred up to 1997. Turks and Caicos Islands
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus has apparently killed off the majority of the ornamental Hibiscus rosa-sinensis but has yet to spread to native Hibiscus species or other Malvaceae (Varnham, 2006). Florida (USA) (United States (USA))
Economic/Livelihoods: The preferred host, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and other Hibiscus species are of historical importance to ornamental production in south Florida and as such, M. hirsutus has negatively impacted on local nurseries (Vitullo et al., 2009). Retail distributors of ornamental plants in regions of the US not presently infested by Maconellicoccus hirsutus have reduced hibiscus orders to mitigate the risk of being sent infested stock, landscape design firms in southern Florida have reduced the planting of hibiscus, and nurseries in southern Florida have significantly curtailed hibiscus production (Vitullo et al., 2009). In the absence of effective control measures, the economic risk to U.S. agriculture has been estimated at $700 million per year (Ranjan, 2006). Texas (United States (USA))
Agricultural: Maconellicoccus hirsutus is a potentially serious pest in many ornamental and agricultural crops in the area, with the Texas Cooperative Extension and the Texas Department of Agriculture working to contain the spread of and potential damage by this pest (Bográn & Ludwig, 2007).
Economic/Livelihoods: Maconellicoccus hirsutus is a potentially serious pest in many ornamental and agricultural crops in the area, with the Texas Cooperative Extension and the Texas Department of Agriculture working to contain the spread of and potential damage by this pest (Bográn & Ludwig, 2007).
Interaction with other invasive species: Bográn & Ludwig (2007) state that as Maconellicoccus hirsutus is known to form beneficial relationships with ants which could deter biological control programmes, species of fire ant may need to also be controlled.
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