Taxonomic name: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
Synonyms:
Common names: Brazilian holly (English), Brazilian pepper, Brazilian pepper tree (English), Christmas berry (English), faux poivrier (French), Florida holly (English), Mexican pepper, pimienta de Brasil (Puerto Rico), poivre rose (French), Rosapfeffer (German), warui (Fijian)
Organism type: tree Native to Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil, Schinus terebinthifolius is a pioneer of disturbed sites, but is also successful in undisturbed natural environments. It is an aggressive evergreen shrub or small tree, 3-7 metres in height that grows in a variety of soil types and prefers partial sun. Schinus terebinthifolius produces shady habitats that repel other plant species and discourage colonisation by native fauna and alter the natural fire regime. Its fruit has a 'paralysing effect' on birds and even grazing animals when ingested. Schinus terebinthifolius seeds are dispersed by birds and mammals and it readily escapes from garden environments. It is planted as both an ornamental and shade tree and has many uses. Description
Brazilian pepper is an evergreen shrub or small tree, 3-7 metres tall or more. The odd-pinnate (compound) leaves are alternately arranged on branches and range from 8 to 17cm in length. Each leaf is composed of usually 4 or 6 (or sometimes more) lateral leaflets, arranged in pairs along a narrowly winged leaf axis (rachis), and a single, terminal leaflet. When crushed, the leaves produce a pungent aroma that has been variously described, from “peppery” to “turpentine-like” (Ferriter 1997).
The flowers are produced in showy, branched inflorescences (panicles), 2-11cm long, which arise from the axils of leaves near the ends of stems. In addition to flowers, the inflorescences also bear triangular to lanceolate, leaf-like bracts with ciliate margins. Both male and female flowers occur on stalks (pedicels) 1mm long and essentially have the same structure: 5 small, green, triangular sepals with ciliate margins; 5 small, white, glabrous, ovate petals; 10 stamens concentrically arranged in 2 series of 5, the outer series being longer; a lobed disc at the base of the stamens; and a single-chambered (unilocular) ovary with 3 short styles. However, in male flowers, the ovary (pistillode) is non-functional, and in female flowers, the stamens (staminodes) are sterile. On female trees, flowering is followed by the production of bright red, fleshy, spherical drupes (“berries”), each 5-6mm in diameter and containing a single seed (Ferriter 1997). Occurs in:
agricultural areas, coastland, natural forests, planted forests, range/grasslands, riparian zones, ruderal/disturbed, scrub/shrublands, urban areas, wetlands Habitat description
Schinus terebinthifolius is an aggressive invader of mesic to wet lowland environments, for example in Hawaii, where it is found distributed in lowland areas (Smith, 1985). It grows in a variety of soil types and prefers partial sun to full sun. In Florida it inhabits fallow farmland, pinelands, hammocks, roadsides, and mangrove forests, in areas with a high degree of disturbance and natural areas with little disturbance (Woodall 1982, Laroche 1994a). General impacts
According to the Florida Department of Environmental Protection in America the invasive plant produces shady habitats that repel other plant species and discourage colonisation by native fauna (as well as altering the natural fire regime). The plant is also a relative of poison ivy and usually aggregates allergic skin reactions on contact (Florida Department of Environmental Protection). The high concentration of volatile (and aromatic) monoterpenes has been suggested to be a probable cause of respiratory problems associated with crushed fruits. Persons sitting beneath Brazilian pepper trees exhibited flu-like symptoms, and sneezing, sinus congestion, chest pains and acute headache (Morton 1969 1978, in Ferriter 1997). The ingested fruits have a 'paralysing effect' on birds and even grazing animals such as horses are susceptible to its effects (Campello and Marsaioli 1974, in Ferriter 1997).
Aqueous extracts of S. terebinthifolius negatively affect the growth of two native plants commonly found in south Florida’s natural areas, Bromus alba (Poaceae) and Rivina humilis (Phytolaccaceae); (Morgan and Overholt 2005, in EPPO Reporting Service 2005); presumably it does this by producing allelopathic chemicals.
S. terebinthifolius may invade natural ecosystems in its introduced range. For example, in Bermuda it invades upland margins of mangrove swamps (Mark and Lonsdale 2002). In Florida it also invades mangrove swamps as well as mature forests (EPPO Reporting Service 2005), potentially threatening to damage or alter these ecosystems. In Malta it invades the Mediterranean maquis community, which consists of mixed species, including olive (Olea europaea), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis) and the garrigue. In the Bahamas it is found on remote islands, where it may alter habitats and interfere with nesting sites (Moyroud 2000). Uses
This plant has been used as a garden plant in many countries. It is planted as both an ornamental and shade tree. The bark serves as a source of tannins and the bright red berries and leaves are used in the making of Christmas Wreaths. The berries are also used as a spice (pink peppercorn). The wood of Brazilian pepper is used in construction, as stakes, posts, and railway sleepers. Virtually all parts of this tropical tree have been used for medicinal purposes throughout the tropics including its leaves, bark, fruit, seeds, resin and oleoresin or balsam. Geographical range
Native range: Northeastern Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil.
Known introduced range: S. terebinthifolius is cultivated in American Samoa, Australia, the Bermudas, Guam, Israel, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, La Réunion, USA and Virgin Islands (USA). It has been recorded as present in Cuba, Fiji, Malta, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island and USA (minor outlaying islands). Introduction pathways to new locations
Nursery trade: S. terebinthifolius has escaped from garden environments in Bermuda (Mark and Lonsdale 2002). This is has occurred in many other localities around the world and is the result of importing plants for ornamental use. Importers of non-crop plants (mainly as “ornamentals”) have contributed to dilution of the native flora in Florids. Among the worst weeds (Exotic Pest Plant Council 1993) are punk trees, water hyacinth, hydrilla, Australian pine, and Brazilian pepper.
Local dispersal methods
Garden escape/garden waste: S. terebinthifolius has escaped from garden environments in Bermuda (Mark and Lonsdale 2002).
On animals: In Bermuda the seeds of S. terebinthifolius spread via the starling Sturnus vulgaris, which consumes its fruits (Mark and Lonsdale 2002).
Vector (local): Dispersal vectors have been studied in detail for Brazilian pepper (Panetta and McKee 1997; Ewel et al. 1982, in Meisenburg and Fox 2002). Panetta and McKee (1997) fed Brazilian pepper fruits to captive birds and compared germination rates of defecated seeds to those that were manually depulped, finding no difference. Ewel et al. (1982) observed Brazilian pepper seedlings sprouting in mammal scat but, while verifying mammals as dispersal agents, such reports often fail to distinguish the mammalian species. Mammal scat, whether from raccoon (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), or gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), is difficult to key out to species, especially when consisting of seeds (Meisenburg and Fox 2002). Management information
Preventative measures: A Risk Assessment of
Schinus terebinthifolius for Hawai‘i and other Pacific islands was prepared by Dr. Curtis Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service. The alien plant screening system is derived from Pheloung et al. (1999) with minor modifications for use in Pacific islands (Daehler et al. 2004). The result is a score of 19 and a recommendation of: "Likely to cause significant ecological or economic harm in Hawai‘i and on other Pacific Islands as determined by a high WRA score, which is based on published sources describing species biology and behaviour in Hawai‘i and/or other parts of the world." When developing a management strategy it is important to consider the following biological traits of S. terebinthifolius. Its seeds are generally not viable after five months following dispersal. Water availability (especially rapid changes in water level) determines to a great extent seedling success; the lack of success of the species in California has been attributed to the short period of sufficient soil moisture needed for germination and root establishment. Seedlings grow very slowly and can survive in dense shade, exhibiting vigorous growth if the canopy is cleared (growing at rates of .03 to .05 metres per year (Ferriter 1997). In this way the creation of open habitat (via deforestation, for example) influences and increases the rate of spread of S. terebinthifolius. When S. terebinthifolius occurs in these open disturbed areas it provide a reservoir for the plant to spread to natural environments. This means that the restoration of disturbed ecosystems back to their natural state may control the spread of the weed to native ecosystems (as well as providing an opportunity to regain native environments).
The plant is capable of resprouting from above-ground stems and root crowns and resprouting is also often profuse, with new growth originating from dormant and adventitious buds. The characteristics that make the Brazilian pepper plant a successful weed include (1) fast growth, (2) prolific seed production, (3) continuous shoot extension, (4) vigorous resprouting and (5) tolerance of a wide range of growing conditions (Ewel 1979, in Ferriter 1997).
Biological: Cleary, 2003 report that there exist various biocontrol agents that may control the Brazilian pepper plant; these include the Brazilian pepper thrip (Pseudophilothrips ichini), the Brazilian pepper leafroller (Episimus utilis), the Brazilian pepper sawfly (Heteroperreyia hubrichi) and a variety of fungal pathogens. Independent studies on Brazilian pepper gall insects us being conducted at the Central Western University (UNICENTRO) in Brazil. Reproduction
Multiple-stemmed trees originate in one of two ways: from sprouting due to damaged trunks and crowns, and from germination of several fruits at the same point, e.g., from seeds dispersed in animal scat (Ferriter 1997).
Brazilian pepper is largely a dioecious plant which means that the flowers are all unisexual, i.e., either male (staminate) or female (pistillate), and the sexes are physically separated, i.e., occur on male and female trees. Ewel et. al. (1982), however, observed that a small number of trees in a population produce bisexual (“complete”) flowers or are monoecious, i.e., unisexual flowers occur on the same individual (Ferriter 1997).
Brazilian pepper is pollinated by diurnal insects, including a number of dipterans (especially a syrphid fly, Palpada vinetorum), hymenopterans, and lepidopterans. Plants appear to be out-crossers, although the rare occurrence of fruits (under experimental conditions) developing from unisexual flowers has not been adequately explained (Ferriter 1997). Lifecycle stages
Flowering and fruiting phenomena in Brazilian pepper shows distinct periodicity. The main flowering period, September to October, is marked by the production of copious flowers from axillary inflorescences developing at the ends of leafy branches. A second flowering period (March-May) occurs in less than 10% of the population (Ewel et. al., 1982, in Ferriter 1997).
Fruit production occurs during the winter (November to February), at which time the branches of female trees are heavily laden with red fruits while male trees remain barren. Ewel et. al. (1982) observed that ripe fruits are retained on a tree for up to 8 months (Ferriter 1997).
The attractive fruits are readily eaten and transported by birds and mammals, with water and gravity serving as less important dispersal agents. Seed dispersal by native and exotic birds, e.g., catbird, mockingbird, American robin, red-whiskered bulbul, accounts for the presence of Brazilian pepper in almost every terrestrial plant
habitat in southern Florida (Austin, 1978; Ewel et. al., 1982; Ewel, 1986, in Ferriter 1997). Robins, when they are present, are believed to consume and transport more Schinus
seed than all other dispersal agents combined. Raccoons and possibly possums are known to ingest the fruits, their stool providing additional nutrients for seed germination and seedling growth (Ewel et. al., 1982, in Ferriter 1997). This species has been nominated as among 100 of the "World's Worst" invaders Reviewed by: Major update under progress Principal sources: Ferriter, A. (Ed.) 1997 Brazilian Pepper Management for Florida, Recommendations from the Brazilian Pepper Task Force Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council’s Brazilian Pepper Task Force: Florida.
Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk, (PIER, 2002)
Compiled by: IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)
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Last Modified: Tuesday, 29 August 2006
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