Taxonomic name: Myiopsitta monachus (Boddaert, 1783)
Synonyms: Psittacus monachus (Boddaert, 1783)
Common names: burátpapagáj (Hungarian), catita com?n (Spanish), caturra-da-argentina (Portuguese), convue veuve (French), cotorra argentina (Spanish), grey-breasted parakeet (English), grey-headed parakeet (English), matto grasso (Portuguese), mniszka (Polish), Mönchssittich (German), monk parakeet (English), monniksparikiet (Dutch), munkkiaratti (Finnish), munkparakit (Swedish), papo branco (Portuguese), parrocchetto monaco (Italian), perruche-souris (French), quaker conure (English), quaker parakeet (English), quaker parrot (English)
Organism type: bird Myipositta monachus (monk parakeets) are popular in the pet trade business. Their distinction as the only nest-building parrot has allowed them to adapt to cold climates and urban areas, thus increasing their range when intentionally or unintentionally released. In Argentina, where Myipositta monachus are native, they are reported to cause one billion dollars worth of crop damage annually. They have, as yet, not significantly harmed any other invaded region. Description
Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeet) are small, stocky parrots, measuring approximately 30cm in total length (Campbell,1998) with a wingspan of 53cm and a mass of 90-120g (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Monk parakeets are mostly green with a grey or off-white face, cheeks, throat and breast. They have a bright yellow lower abdomen and vent area. The flight feathers are blue-black and the tail feathers are long and green. They have a pale orange or dull yellow bill and grey legs (Campbell, 1998) and a dark brown iris (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Immature monk parakeets are a brighter green with a greenish forehead (Campbell, 2000). They do not exhibit sexual dimorphism (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). They are usually found in loose flocks of 15-20 birds, although flocks of up to 100 are not uncommon. Monk parakeets are quite vocal with a wide vocabulary of screeches, squawks and chattering noises (Campbell 2000). Occurs in:
agricultural areas, planted forests, range/grasslands, ruderal/disturbed, urban areas Habitat description
Myiopsitta monachus prefer open habitats. In their native range they populate savannah woodlands, farmland, plantations, orchards and cultivated forests (Campbell, 2000), from low elevations up to 1600m above sea level (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). They are the only parrot that builds its own nest instead of using existing cavities. They weave sticks and spiny branches together to create a sturdy nest used year round for roosting. The nests are almost always 10 metres or more above the ground, often in tall trees (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Studies of monk parakeet populations at Arroyito and Jesus Maria, Cordoba province, Argentina, showed that monk parakeets preferred Eucalyptus trees (Arroyito) and native trees (Jesus Naria) for breeding nests (Navarro, Martella, & Bucher, 1992). In its introduced range they live almost exclusively in urban areas, preferring open habitats, including parks, planted urban areas, golf courses, farms, gardens and orchards (Campbell, 2000). General impacts
In their native range, Myiopsitta monachus are considered a significant agricultural pest, often causing damage to field crops and orchards. There have also been reports of transmission lines short-circuited by nesting birds. In their introduced range, impacts are uncertain. Monk parakeets have not caused the agricultural devastation predicted, nor has there been any solid evidence that native fauna are negatively affected by their establishment. However, there has been some speculation that growing urban populations of monk parakeets could become source populations for surrounding areas. They cut twigs and buds from ornamental and fruit trees, and are one of the most raucous of birds.
Fitzwater (1988) also states that in addition to being a fruit crop pest in South America, monk parakeets have great potential for dissemination of Exotic Newcastle Disease Virus (ENDV). Uses
Known for their beauty and intelligence, Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeets) are a popular pet, especially in North America, since the 1960's (Campbell, 2000). Notes
Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeet) is a CITES-listed species. Please follow this link CITES- Myiopsitta monachus for more details. Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade. Monk parakeets display several types of "helping behaviours" that may have contributed to their success as alien species. Included are communal nest building, delayed breeding, the presence of non-breeding mature adults, nest sentinel systems and reduced natal dispersal. After leaving the nest, young birds often remain close, building their own nests or adding on to an existing nest. Nests can be small, housing a single pair or up to one metre in diameter and weighing 200kg and house multiple pairs. Nests have roofs and entry holes, mainly on the underside and often multiple chambers for nesting pairs and small groups of non-breeding indivduals. (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). "Once the site of the nest structure is selected, individual monk parakeets construct a nest cavity, affixing it to the main nest structure." (Burger and Gochfeld, 2005). M. monachus are very social birds, having eleven or more different calls that each elicit a different response from others in the colony. (Campbell, 2000) Geographical range
Native range: Subtropical and temperate South America in lowlands east of the Andes Mountains from Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Brazil south to the Patagonia region of Argentina. (Campbell, 2000)
Known introduced range: Eastern United States, Southern Canada, Spain, Italy, France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Holland, Czech Republic, Kenya, Japan, Bermuda, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, and England (Campbell, 2000). Introduction pathways to new locations
Pet/aquarium trade: Nearly 65,000 monk parakeets were imported into the U.S. from 1968 to 1972 (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998).
Local dispersal methods
Escape from confinement: Upon import, some monk parakeets escaped from damaged shipping crates. (Spreyer & Bucher, 1998).
Intentional release: Birds were released by owners tired of them and also intentionally from zoos in U.S. and England. (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Management information
Preventative measures: In 1900 the United States inacted the Lacey Act for exotic species control, but excluded parrots and later all psittacines from control efforts. By 1960 more than 12,000 Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeets) were legally imported each year to the U.S. In 1973 state departments, under the support of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, began an eradication effort. New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and California accounted for 87% of the 163 monk parakeets killed. California was the only state that continued control efforts by implementing legislation that prohibited the importation, transportation or possession of monk parakeets without special permission (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Due to the legal importation and spread of 15,000 birds since 1972, Chile invoked a ban in 1997 on monk parakeets. (Iriarte, Lobos, & Jaksic, 2005).The Bureau of Rural Sciences, Australia, recently developed a risk assessment model (Bomford, 2003) which has been endorsed by the National Vertebrate Pests Committee and may be used as the basis for future exotic species import applications. To assign an exotic species to a threat category, three risk scores are calculated: the risk that (1) an escaped or released individual would harm people; (2) escaped or released individuals would establish a wild free-living population; (3) the species would be a pest if a wild population did establish. These three risk scores are then used to assign the exotic species to one of four threat categories: extreme, serious, moderate or low.
Myiopsitta monachus has been assigned an Extreme threat category for Australia. These animals should not be allowed to enter, nor be kept in any State or Territory (special consideration may be given to scientific institutions on a case by case basis.) Any species that has not been assessed previously should be considered to be in the Extreme Threat Category and should be treated accordingly, until a risk assessment is conducted. Physical: In Dade County, Florida, a study was conducted on crop damage caused by non-native bird populations. The study showed that longan orchards populated by monk parakeets experienced dramatic increases in damage, up to thirty times as much as fields where monk parakeets were not present. Hanging carcasses, stretching reflecting tape over the trees, and netting individual panicles on trees are some of the control methods that have been attempted. Future recommended strategies include: tall exclusion nets surrounding the fields, and some kind of control or reduction of monk parakeet populations. (Tillman, Van Doom & Avery, 2000). Argentina has attempted several control methods, including shooting, snaring, netting and nest burning without success. From 1958-1960 bounties were paid for 427,206 pairs of monk parakeet feet (Spreyer and Bucher,1998) but the attempt at population control was completely ineffective (Campbell, 2000). Eradication of monk parakeets has proved ineffective in part because non-breeding adults will begin reproducing as breeding adults are killed. (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Chemical: Spreyer and Bucher (1998) report that in South America, "a recently developed technique, the application of highly toxic organophosphorus pesticides like Azodrin or Carbofuran mixed with petroleum grease to nest entrance, may kill both adults and nestlings that use the nest. Such a method, however, poses risk of secondary poisoning to raptors and other types of wildlife." Nutrition
In their native range, Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeets) are generalist granivores and will eat maize, millet, sorghum, sunflowers and other seeds, as well as some fruits, nuts, berries and insects. Year round favourite foods include thistle (Asteraceae) and grass (Poaceae), and fruits of palm and other native trees, largely tala (Celtis spinosa) (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). In their introduced range, they feed on the seeds and fruits of exotic ornamental plants and on bird seed provided year round by humans. (Hyman and Pruett-Jones, 1995). They use their large beak to consume seeds and take large bites from fruit. They have also been seen cracking pine cones to get to the seeds and snipping the heads off dandelions and eating the seeds. In winter, monk parakeets often feed in large flocks of several hundred while a few sentinels sit on high perches and search for predators, however, during the breeding season, flocks larger than four birds are rare. Monk parakeets generally feed 3 - 8km from the nest site and may forage as far as 24km away during the non-breeding season (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998). Reproduction
In South America, gonadal development begins in August, peaks in November and declines rapidly thereafter. Testes enlarge to fifteen times their normal size and ovaries grow in similar proportion. This pattern supports the idea of a fixed annual cycle driven by a photoperiod. South American monk parakeets copulate in October while North American birds copulate in the spring months as the photoperiod increases. In a study of a Myiopsitta monachus population in Punta Blanca in the Buenos Aires province of Argentina, pairs produced the first eggs in mid-October. The average clutch size was 7 eggs (range 5-12) (Campbell 2000). Lifecycle stages
In the studied Punta Blanca population, Myiopsitta monachus (monk parakeet) eggs hatched asynchronously after 24 days. The hatch rate was just over 50%. The hatchlings are covered with yellow down and are fed by the parents via regurgitation (Spreyer and Bucher, 1998) for approximately 40 days, after which they leave the nest (Campbell, 2000). The nestlings reach a weight of approximately 106 grammes before fledging (Campbell, 2000). Reviewed by: Expert review underway: Antonio Román Muńoz Gallego. Grupo SEO-MALAGA. Spain
Compiled by: National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) & IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)
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Last Modified: Thursday, 9 November 2006
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